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SCOTT, FOEESMAX AND COMPANY 
Chicago New York 



THE STORY OF THE 

MIDDLE AGES 



AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY FOR 
SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADES 



SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. 



INDIANA UNIVERSITY 



New Edition, Revised and Enlarged 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 
CHICAGO NEW YORK 






Copyright, 1901, 1912, by 
Scott, Poresman and Company 



g CI. A3 120 4 6 



PREFACE 

The point of view from which this book is written 
is perhaps sufficiently set forth in -the introductory- 
chapter, but it may fittingly call for an additional word 
in this place. It is, namely, the point of view of one 
who believes that the child about to undertake the 
formal study of American history in the seventh and 
eighth grades of our schools, needs first a preliminary 
sketch of the history of earlier times, — especially of 
the Middle Ages, — in order that our own history may 
appear in its true perspective and setting. 

In attempting to make intelligible to children the 
institutions and events of the Middle Ages, the author 
is aware of the magnitude of the task which he has 
essayed. He is, however, firmly of the opinion that 
the difficulty arises frequently not so much from an 
inability on the part of the child to grasp the essential 
ideas underlying medieval relations, as from the lack 
of a clear understanding of these on the part of the 
narrator himself, and the need of finding familiar non- 
technical terms of definition. Whether the difficulty 
has bqen entirely surmounted in this work can only 
be determined by the test of use ; but at least no pains 
have been spared in the effort. 

The interest of the book, no doubt, might have been 
enhanced had the author wislied to give stories, instead 
of ''the story" of the Middle Ages. Detached episodes, 
striking figures, romantic tales, exist in plenty to rivet 
the child's attention and fire his fancy; but it has been 
no part of the plan of this work to draw attention to 

3 



4 PREFACE 

particular persons and events at the expense of the 

whole. 

"Somehow," writes Walter Bagehot of historical 

reading for children, "the whole comes in boyhood; 

the details later and in manhood. The wonderful 

series going far back to the times of the old patriarchs 

with their flocks and herds, the keen-eyed Greek, the 

stately Roman, the watching Jew, the uncouth Goth, 

the horrid Hun, the settled picture of the unchanging 

East, the restless shifting of the rapid West, the rise 

of the cold and classical civilization, its fall, the rough 

impetuous Middle Ages, the vague warm picture of 

ourselves and home, — when did we learn these? Not 

yesterday nor today ; but long ago in the first dawn of 

reason, in the original flow of fancy. What we learn 

afterwards are but the accurate littlenesses of the great 

topic, the dates and tedious facts. Those who begin 

late learn only these ; but the happy first feel the mystic 

associations and the progress of the whole." 

Bloomington, Indiana, 
July, 1901. 



The opportunity afforded by the necessity of making 
new plates for the book has been used to revise and 
expand the text, to increase the number of the chap- 
ters by dividing some of the longer ones and rearrang- 
ing parts of the narrative, and to introduce a number 
of new illustrations. At the beginning and end of 
each chapter, there are also introduced analyses and 
lists of topics, as aids to the busy teacher. With these 
changes it is hoped that the revised edition of the 
book will not merely retain the favor accorded to the 
original edition, but will make new friends. 

January, 1912. 



CONTENTS 

Chap. Page 

Preface 3 

List of Illustrations 7 

I. Introduction 9 

II. The Ancient Germans 12 

III. Breaking the Frontier 23 

IV. Wanderings of the West-Goths 31 

V. Fall of the Western Empire 38 

VI. East-Goths and Lombards 46 

VII. Growth OF the Christian Church. .. . 52 

VIII. Rise of the Franks 62 

IX. Descendants of Clovis 71 

X. Mohammed and the Mohammedans. . . 77 

XL The Mayors of the Palace 84 

XII. Charlemagne 89 

K.111. Descendants of Charlemagne 104 

XIV. EisE OF Feudalism 109 

XV. Deeds of the Northmen 114 

XVI. England in the Middle Ages 124 

:VII. The First Crusade 132 ' 

i^III. The Later Crusades 146 

^IX. Life of the Castle 158 

XX. Life of the Village 173 

KXI. Life of the Town 182 

5 



CONTENTS 



^^C^h.v. Page 

XXII. Life of the Monastery 195 

XXIII. Triumph of Papacy over Empire 207 

XXIV. Decline of the Papal Power 216 

XXA^. First Period of the Hundred Years' 

War 224 

XXVI. ]\Iiddle Period of the Struggle 232 

XXVII. Joan of Arc and the Close of the 

War 239 

XXVIII. End of the Middle Ages 245 

Index (with Pronunciation of Proper 

Names) 257 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

King John of France taken 
Prisoner at Poitiers. .. .Fron/. 

An Old German Village 13 

Germans going into Battle ... 17 

Woden 20 

Thor 21 

A Hun Warrior 26 

Goths on the March 32 

West-Gothic Tower 37 

Court of the Huns 41 

Tomh of Theodoric 48 

Ivory Comb of a Lombard 

Queen 49 

Bishop on his Ihrone 53 

A Monk 57 

Franks Crossing the Rhine. . 63 

A Frankish Chief 65 

Baptism of Clovis 68 

Descendants of Clovis 72 

Merovingian King on Ox-Cart 75 

The City of Mecca 78 

Map of Mohammedan Con- 
quests 80 

Charles Martel Defeats the 

Moors 85 

^Merovingian King Deposed. . . 87 
Royal Palace of Charlemagne's 

Time 94 

Charlemagne (as after ages 

thought of him) 99 

Charlemagne (as he really 

looked) lul 

Map of Charlemagne's Empire. 103 

Lothair 105 

Charles 107 

A Vassal doing Homage 108 

Lord and Dependents Feasting.lll 

A Viking Ship 115 

Count Odo bringing Aid to 

Paris 119 

An Early English Church. ... Ili5 
House of an English Noble- 
man 128 

William of Xormandy Landing 

in England 129 

Death of Harold 130 

Map of the Crusades 133 



PAGE 

A Pilgrim 134 

A Crusader 136 

Crusaders on the March 137 

Machine for Hurling Stones.. 144 

A Knight Templar 148 

The Legend of Barbarossa. . . .151 

Attacking a City (I) 152 

Attacking a City (II) 153 

St. Louis in Captivity 154 

A Castle of the Eleventh Cen- 
tury 159 

Castle belonging to Richard 

the Lion-IIearted 164 

Lady Hunting with a Falcon. 167 

Arming the Knight 169 

A Great Feast in the Twelfth 

Century 170 

I'lan of a Village 174 

Peasants Plowing 177 

Harrowing and Threshing. . . .178 

A German City 184 

Cathedral of Cologne 186 

Shop in the Middle Ages 189 

Fair in the Thirteenth Cen- 
tury 192 

German Monastery 197 

French Cloister 198 

Monk Copying Books 200 

Illuminated Initial 201 

Ring Seal of Otto 1 208 

Henry IV. at Canossa 213 

Seizure of Pope Boniface VIII. 220 

I'apal I'aUue at Avignon 221 

Archers Shooting at a Mark. 226 

Crossbowman 227 

Knights in Battle 228 

Battle of Poitiers 230 

Knight Attacking Foot Sol- 
diers 233 

I)u Guesclin 234 

Halberds, Bills, and I'ikes. . .236 
Joan of Arc and Her Voices. 241 
Joan at the Crowning of the 

French King 243 

Early Printers 250 

Early Cannon 251 

The Cross-Staff 252 



INTRODUCTION 

Outline of Chapter 

Relation of European history to American history. 

Greek and Eoman civilization, the German peoples, and the 

Christian Church combine in the Middle Ages. 
Europe becomes Europe, and prepares to found new Eiiropes 

in America, Australia, and Africa. 

When Columbus in the year 1492 returned from his 
voyage of discovery, a keen rivalry began among the 
Old World nations for the possession of the Relation of 
New World. Expedition followed expedi- IZZTto 
tion; Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Eug- ^^^can. 
lish, and later the Dutch and Swedes, all began to 
strive with one another for the wealth and dominion of 
the new-found lands; and American history — our own 
history — begins. 

But who were these Spaniards and Portuguese, these 
Englishmen and Frenchmen, these Dutchmen and 
Swedes? In the old days, when the might and power 
of Eome ruled over the world, we hear nothing of 
them. AVhence had they come ? Were they entirely 
new peoples, who had no part in the old world of the 
Greeks and Romans? Were they the descendants of 
the old peoples over whom the Emperors had ruled 
from the city of the Seven Hills? Or did they arise 
from a mingling of the old and the new ? Then, if they 
were the result of a mingling, where had the new races 
dwelt during the long years that Rome was spreading 
her Empire over the known world? When and how 

9 



10 'T'BE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

had the mingling taken phice? What, too, had 
become of 

The glory that was Greece, the grandeur that was Rome? 

AVhy was America not discovered and settled earlier? 
AVliat were the customs, the ideas, the institutions 
which these peoples brought with them when they did 
settle here? In short, what had been the history and 
what was the condition of the nations which, after 
1492, began, the struggle for the mastery of the New 
World? 

To such questions it is the aim of this book to give 
an answer. It will try to show how the power of 
Rome fell before the attacks of German barbarians, 
and how, in the long course of the Middle Ages, new 
peoples, new states, a new civilization, arose on the 
ruins of the old. 

At the beginning of the period, Rome was old and 

worn out with misgovernment and evil living. But, 

planted in this dying Rome, there was the 

Germans, and ucw and vigorous Christian Church, which 
was to draw up into itself all that was best 
and strongest of the old Roman world. The Germans, 
on the other hand, were rude and uncivilized, but they 
were strong in mind and body, and possessed some 
ideas about government, women, and the family which 
were better than the ideas of the Romans on these 
subjects. 

When the Germans conquered the Romans and 
settled within the bounds of the Empire, it might well 
have seemed that the end of the world had come. 
Cities were plundered and destroyed; priceless works 
of art were dashed to pieces; and the inhabitants of 



INTRODUCTION IX 

many lands were slain or enslaved. For nearly a thou- 
sand years Europe did not entirely recover from tlio 
shock ; and the period which immediately follows the 
coming of the barbarians is so dreary and sad that 
historians have called it ''the Dark Ages." 

But what was best in the old Greek and Roman 
civilization did not wholly perish. 

The Christian Church, too, grew steadily stronger, 
and sought to soften and civilize the rude Grermans. 

The Germans, in turn, did not lose their vigor or 
their good ideas. 

At last, from the combination of these three elements, 
a new civilization arose, — stronger, better, and capable 
of higher development than the old, — and Europe be- 
the Middle Ages were past. Then, and ^^he ^""^^ 
only then, could — and did — the new kiddie Ages. 
nations, which meanwhile had slowly been forming, 
set out on their careers of discovery and exploration, 
which have made our New World possible. 

So, we may say, the Middle Ages were the period 
when Europe became Europe, and made ready to found 
new Europes in America, in Australia, and in Africa. 
It was the growing-time for all the great harvest which 
has come since that time.. 

Study Topic 

What does civilization mean? It is the art of living together 
in cities, and is contrasted with the rude family and village life 
of the savage and barbarian. Civilization means better houses, 
better clothing (spun and woven fabrics of wool, linen, etc., 
instead of skin garments), and better food. It also means better 
roads and bridges, and sewers and other public conveniences. It 
means organized governments and orderly societies, in place of 
savage independence and lawlessness; it means schools, museums, 
and libraries; more reasonable law, and more spiritual religion. 



n 

THE ANCIENT GERMANS 

Outline of Chapter 

Eelation of the ancient Germans to modern peoples; where 

they lived; their relation to other Aryan peoples. 
Their personal appearance and character; their houses; their 

manner of living. 
Why the Romans could not conquer them; battle of the Teuto- 

berg Forest; German manner of fighting; relation of the 

leader to his followers. 
Life of the Germans in time of peace; their government; their 

religion; readiness to learn of other peoples. 

We must begin our story with those new races which 

were to mix their blood with that of the peoples of the 

Roman Empire, and so form the chief 

Germans Europcau uatious of today. These were 

the ancient Germans, the ancestors of the 

peoples who now speak German, English, Dutch, and 

Scandinavian. 

They lived then, — as part of their descendants still 

do, — in the lands extending from the North Sea and 

the Baltic, on the north, to the Danube 

they^ived. ^ivcr ou the south ; and from the Ehine, on 

the west, to the rivers Elbe and Oder on 

the east. This region is now one of the most flourishing 

countries in the world, with many great cities and 

millions of inhabitants. At that time it had no cities 

at all, and but few inhabitants. The people had just 

begun to settle down and cultivate the soil, where 

before they had moved from place to place, to find 

fresh pasturage for their flocks and better hunting. 

12 



THE ANCIENT GERMANS 



13 



The surface of the country was still almost as Nature 
had made it. Gloomy forests stretched for miles and 
miles, where now there are sunny fields ; and wide and 
treacherous marshes lay where the land now stands 
firm and solid. 

In this wild country, for many years, the Germans 
had room to live their own life. To the east were the 





*i4l/t>Kj 



AN OLD OERMAN VllJ.AtiK 

Notice the circular shape of the huts, made ont of rough boards or bark, and 

without windows. 

Slavs, a people still ruder and more uncivilized than 
themselves. To the west were the Gauls, in what is 
now France. To the south were provinces of the 
Roman Empire, separated from them by the broad 
stream of the river Danube. 

The Germans, the Gauls, the Slavs, and the Romans, 
— though they did not know it, — might all call them- 
selves cousins; for most of the peoples of Europe are 



]4 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

descended from one great race, called Aryans. Long 

before Athens or Rome was built, before the Germans 

had come into this land, before any nation 

Relation to . 

other Aryan had bcgun to keep a written account oi 

peoples. 

its deeds, the forefathers of these peoples 
dwelt together somewhere in western Asia or eastern 
Europe. At last, for reasons which we cannot know 
after so great a stretch of time, these Aryan peoples 
separated and moved away in different directions. 
One branch of them entered Italy and became the 
ancestors of the Greeks and Romans. Another entered 
what is now France, and became the Gauls whom 
Caesar conquered. One settled in Germany, and still 
others settled in other lands both near and far. 

In spite of the kinship between them, however, the 

Germans and Romans were very different in many 

ways. The Romans were short and dark, 

^ppearance ^^.jjjj^, |.|jg Germans were tall — very tall, 

they seemed to the Romans, — with fair 
skin, light hair, and clear blue eyes. The clothing of 
the Germans, unlike that of the Romans, was made 
chiefly from the skins of animals. Usually it did not 
cover the whole body, the arms and shoulders at least 
being left free. AVhen the German was in a lazy mood 
he would sit for days by the fire, clad only in a long 
cloak of skins; then when he prepared to hunt or to 
fight, he would put on close-fitting garments and leave 
his cloak behind. 

The houses in which the Germans lived were mere 

cabins or huts. Nothing was used but wood, and that 

Their ^^'^^ ^^^ planed smooth, but was roughly 

houses. hewn into boards and timbers. Sometimes 

a cave would be used for a dwelling, and often a 



THE ANCIENT GEBMANS 15 

house of timber would have an underground room at- 
tached to it. This was for warmth in winter and also 
for protection against their enemies. Sometimes in 
summer the people made huts of twigs woven to- 
gether in much the same way that a basket is woven. 
Such houses were very flimsy, but they had the 
advantage of being easily moved from place to place. 
Often, too, the house sheltered not only the family, but 
the horses and cattle as well, all living under one roof. 
One can imagine that this was not a very healthful 
plan. 

The Germans gained tlieir living partly from hunting 
and partly from tilling the soil. They also depended 
a great deal upon their herds and flocks 
for meat, as well as for milk and the foods ^*r"®L 

■ 01 living. 

which they made from milk. The Germans 
paid great respect to their women, and the latter could 
often by their reproaches stop the men when defeated 
and in flight, and encourage them to do battle again. 
Nevertheless, the care of the cattle and the tilling of 
the soil, as well as the house-work, fell chiefly to the 
women. The men preferred to hunt or to fight; and 
when not doing either, would probably be found by the 
fire sleeping, or idling away their time in games of 
chance. Most of the occupations of which we now see 
so much were not known to them. Tliere was hardly 
any trading either among themselves or with other 
nations. Each family made its own things, and made 
very little more than it needed for its own use. The 
women spun and wove linen and other cloth, tanned 
leather, made soap, — which the Greeks and Romans 
did not know, — and a few other things. But all tliis 
wns onlv for use in their own families. There were 



16 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

no trading places, and almost no commerce, except in 
a few things such as skins and the amber of the Baltic 
Sea. One occupation, however, was considered good 
enough for any man to follow. This was the trade of 
the blacksmith. The skillful smith was highly honored, 
for he not only made tools to work with, but also 
weapons with which to hunt and to fight. 

But usually the free man considered it beneath his 

dignity to work in any way. He was a warrior more 

than anything else. The Romans had 

Why Rome . i i /-< 

could not reason to know that the Grermans were 

conquer them, n ^ • i i i x-> 

very stubborn fighters; indeed, the Komans 
never did conquer Germany. The Germans were not 
made weak, as the Romans were, by indulging in all 
kinds of luxuries. They lived in the open air, they ate 
plain food, and they did not make their bodies tender 
by too much clothing. In every way their habits were 
more wholesome than those of the Romans ; and besides 
this, each man had a spirit of independence that caused 
him to fight hard to avoid capture and slavery. 

At one time, while Augustus was Emperor, three 
legions of the Roman army, under an officer named 

Varus, were entrapped and slain at a place 
the Teutoherg called the Tcutobcrg forest. The shock of 

For65ti 

this defeat was felt so keenly at Rome that, 
long after this, the Emperor would awake at night 
from restless sleep, and cry out : 

' ' Varus, Varus, give me back my legions ! ' ' 
After this defeat the Romans learned to be more 
careful in fighting the Germans. The Romans had the 
advantage of better weapons with which to fight, 
better knowledge of how to fight, and greater wealth 
with which to carry on a war. So, in spite of some 



THE ANCIENT GEBMANS 



17 



decided victories over the soldiers of the Empire the 
Germans were obliged for many years to acknowledge 
Rome as the stronger; and Roman soldiers were even 
stationed in some parts of the German territory 

When the German army was preparing tor battle, 
the men arranged themselves so that each line had a 
greater number in it and was longer than ^^^^^^ 
the one in front. Thus the army formed a manner of 



sort of wedge, which they called the 
"boar's head," from its shape. 



fighting. 

Arranged in this 

^4 




GERMANS GOING INTO BATTLE 

Taken from the sculpturos on a Roman monument. 

manner the army moved forward with one grand rush 
guarding their sides with large wooden shields, and 
hewing with their swords and thrusting " with their 
spears If the first rush failed to dismay the enemy 
and turn them in flight, there was no longer any order 
or plan of battle. Each man then fought for himselt, 
until victory or defeat ended the struggle. 

Among the Germans no man dared to flee from the 
field of battle, for cowardice was punished with death. 
To leave one's shield behind was the greatest of crimes, 



18 THE STOUT OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

and made a man disgraced in the sight of all. Bravery 

was the chief of virtues, and it was this alone which 

could give a man the leadership of an 

The leader n i • 

and his army. The general was chosen for his 

followers. i i i 

valor, and he kept his position only so 
long as he continued to show himself brave. He must 
be an example to all his followers and must fight in 
the front ranks. A general was made by his fellow 
warriors, who raised him upon their shields as a sign 
of their choice. If he proved less worthy than they 
had thought, they could as easily make another general 
in his place. The leader and his men were constantly 
reminded that upon their strength and courage 
depended the safety and happiness of their wives and 
children ; for their families often followed the army to 
battle, and witnessed the combats from rude carts or 
wagons, mingling their shrill cries with the din of 
battle. 

Times of peace among these early Germans would 

seem to us much like war. Every man carried his 

weapons about with him and used them 

Life in time fj-eelv. Huuian life was held cheap, and a 

of peace. " ^ ' 

quarrel was often settled by the sword. 
There was no strong government to punish wrong and 
protect the weak ; so men had to protect and help 
themselves. A man was bound to take up the quarrels, 
or feuds, of his family and avenge by blood a wrong 
done to any of his relatives. As a result there was 
constant fighting. Violent deeds were frequent, and 
their punishment was light. If a man injured another, 
or even committed murder, the law might be satisfied 
and the offender excused by the payment of a fine to 
the injured man, or to his family. 



TEE ANCIENT GEBMANS 19 

Some tribes of the Germans had kings, but others 
had not, and were ruled by persons chosen in the 
meetings of the people, or "folk." Even 
among those tribes that had kings, the of the 
power of the ruler in time of peace was not 
very great. The kings were not born kings, but 
were chosen by the consent of the people. Some few 
families, because they had greater wealth, or for some 
other reason, were looked upon with such respect that 
they were considered noble, and kings were chosen 
from among their number. Yet each man stood upon 
his own merits, too ; and neither wealth nor birth could 
keep a king in power if he proved evil in rule or weak 
in battle. The rulers decided only the matters that 
were of small importance. When it came to serious 
matters, such as making war or changing the customs 
of the tribe, the "folk" assembled together and decided 
for itself. In their assemblies they showed disapproval 
by loud murmurs; while to signify approval, they 
clashed their shields and spears together. Every free 
man had the right to attend the folk-meeting of his 
district, and also the general assembly of the whole 
tribe. The power of the king was less than that of the 
assembly, and he was subject to it; for the assembly 
could depose the king, as well as elect him. In times 
of war, however, the power of the kings was much in- 
creased ; for then it was necessary that one man should 
do the planning, and time could not be taken up with 
assemblies. 

At the period of which we are speaking, the Germans 
did not believe in one God as we do, but ^j^^j^. 
in many. The names of some of their religion, 
gods are preserved in the names which we have for the 



20 



TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



days of the week. From the god Tyr comes Tuesday, 
from Woden comes Wednesday, and from Thor comes 
Thursday. Tyr was the god of the heavens, and 
was at first the chief of gods. Songs were sung in 
his honor, places named for him, and even human 
beings were sacrificed to him. Woden was after- 
wards worshiped as the god of the sky, and also 

of the winds. Be- 
cause he controlled 
the winds, it was nat- 
ural that he should 
be the special god to 
whom those people 
looked who depended 
upon the sea ; there- 
fore he became the 
protector of sailors. 
He was also the god 
of war, and the spear 
was his emblem. Af- 
ter the worship of 
Tyr died out, Woden 
became the chief god 
of the Germans. To 
him also there were 

WODEN . 

sacrifices ot human 
beings. Next in importance to Woden was Thor, the 
god of thunder and also of the household. His emblem 
was a hammer. When it thundered the people said 
that Thor with his hammer was fighting the ice- 
giants; so he was regarded as the enemy of winter, and 
the giver of good crops. 

Besides these chief gods, there were many less 




THE ANCIENT GERMANS 



31 



important ones. Among these were spirits of the for- 
ests and rivers, and the "gnomes" or dwarfs who 
dwelt in the earth, guarding the stores of precious 
metals and jewels which it contains. Long after the 
old religion had come to an end, the descendants of the 
ancient Germans remembered these spirits, and stories 
of their tricks and good deeds were handed down from 
father to son. In this 
way the Germans kept 
something from the old re- 
ligion in the beautiful 
fairy tales which we still 
love ; and in our Christmas 
and Easter customs we 
find other traces of their 
old beliefs and customs. 

When missionaries went 
among them, however, 
they became Christians. 
This shows one of the 
greatest qualities which 
they possessed. They were 
willing and able to learn 
from other peoples, -and to thor 

change their customs to 

suit new conditions. Other races, like the American 
Indians, who did not learn so readily, have 
declined and died away when they have the Germans 
been brought in contact with a higher civi- 
lization. But the Germans could learn from the Greeks 
and the Romans; so they grew from a rude, half- 
barbarous people into great and civilized nations. 
Today the strongest and most progressive nations of 




22 TEE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

the world are descended, wholly or in part, from these 
ancient Germans. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Describe the German village pictured ou p. 13. 

2. Locate Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Danube, North Sea, Baltic Sea, 

Gaul, Roman Empire. 

3. Make a list of the good qualities of the early Germans. 

4. Do the same for their bad qualities. 



Ill 
BREAKING THE FRONTIER 

Outline of Chapter 

The boundary between the Konians and Germans. 

Early history and wanderings of the Goths; Ulfilas converts 

them to Christianity. 
The Huns attack them; character of the Huns; the East-Goths 

submit; the West-Goths flee into the Koman Empire (375 

A.D.) 
The Battle of Adrianople; the Goths remain quiet under the 

Emperor Tlieodosius; trouble follows his death; Alaric 

becomes King of the West-Goths. 

If you look at the map of Europe you will see two 
great rivers, — the Rhine and the Danube, — flowing 
in opposite directions across the continent, 

^ '^ Boundary 

one emptying into the North Sea and the of Roman 

'^ "^ " Empire. 

other into the Black Sea. Their mouths 
are thousands of miles apart ; yet when you follow up 
the course of each, you find that they come nearer rand 
nearer, until, not far from their sources, the distance be- 
tween them is no greater than a good walker might 
cover in a day. Thus these two rivers almost form a 
single line across the whole of Europe. Each in its 
lower course is broad and deep, and makes a good 
boundary for the countries on its banks. The Roman 
armies in the olden days often crossed these rivers and 
indeed gained victories beyond them ; but they found it 
so hard to keep possession of what they conquered 
there, that in the end they decided not to try. So, for 
many years, the Rhine and the Danube rivers formed 
the northern boundary of the Roman Empire. 

23 



24 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

In the last chapter j^ou have read something of the 
Germans who lived north and east of this boundary. 
Among these peoples there was one which Avas to take 
the lead in breaking through the frontier and bringing 
about the downfall of the great empire of Rome. This 
was the nation of the Goths. 

In the latter part of the fourth century after Christ, 

the Goths dwelt along the shores of the Black Sea 

and just north of the lower course of the 

oA^he^GoVhJ. Danube river. There they had been 

dwelling for more than a hundred years. 

According to the stories which the old men had told 

their sons, and the sons had told their children after 

them, the Goths at one time had dwelt far to tlie 

north, on the shores of the Baltic. Why they left their 

northern home, we do not know. Perhaps it was 

because of a famine oi* a pestilence which liad come 

upon the land ; perhaps it was because of a victory or 

a defeat in war with their neighbors ; perhaps it was 

because of the urging of some great leader, or because 

of an oracle of their gods. 

At any rate, the Goths did leave their homes by the 

Baltic Sea, and wandered southward through the 

forests of what is now Western Russia. 

They arrive i i t • t • i 

at the Alter many years, they had arrived in the 

Danube River- . ■, -r^ ^ mi 

sunnier lands about the Danube. There 
they had come in contact with the Romans for the first 
time. For a while there had been much fighting 
between the two peoples; but at last the Goths had 
been allowed to settle down quietly in these lands, on 
condition that they should not cross the river Danube 
and enter the Roman territory. And there they had 
dwelt ever since, living peaceably, for the most part, 



BREAKING TEE FEONTIEB 25 

alongside their Roman neighbors, and learning from 
them many civilized ways. 

The greatest thing that the Goths learned from the 
Romans was Christianity. Little by little they ceased 
worshiping Thor and Woden, and became 

. . Ulfllas 

Christians. This was chiefly due to one of converts the 

'' Goths. 

their own men, named Ulfilas, who spent a 
number of years at Constantinople, the Roman capital 
of the world. There he became a Christian priest ; and 
when he returned to his people he began to work as a 
missionary among them. Ultilas had many difficulties 
to overcome in this work ; but the chief one was that 
there was no Bible, or indeed any books, in the Gothic 
language. So Ulfilas set to work to translate the Bible 
from the Greek language into the Gothic. This was a 
hard task in itself; but it was made all the harder by 
the fact that before he could begin he had to invent an 
alphabet in which to write down the Gothic words. 
After the translation was made, too, he had to teach 
his people how to read it. In all this Ulfilas was suc- 
cessful; and under his wise and patient teaching the 
Goths rapidly became Christians. At the same time 
they were becoming more civilized, and their rulers 
were beginning to build up a great kingdom about the 
Danube and the Black Sea. Suddenly, however, an 
event happened which was to change all their later 
history, and indeed the history of the world as well. 
This Avas the coming of the Huns into Europe. 

The Huxs were not members of the great Aryan 
family of nations; and indeed the Germans and the 
Romans thought that they were scarcely human at all. 
They were related to the Chinese ; and their strange 
features and customs, and their shrill voices, were 



26 



TEE STOSY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



new to Europe. An old Gothic writer gives us a pic- 
ture of them. "Nations whom they could never have 
defeated in fair fight," he says, "fled in 
horror from those frightful faces, if, in- 
deed, I may call them faces; for they are 
nothing but shapeless black pieces of flesh, with little 
points instead of eyes. They have no hair on their 



The Huns 
attack the 
Goths. 




A nUN WARRIOR 



cheeks or chins. Instead, the sides of their faces show 
deep furrowed scars; for hot irons are applied to the 
face of every boy that is born among them, so that 
blood is drawn from his cheeks before he is allowed to 
taste his mother's milk. The men are little in size, but 
quick and active in their motions; and they are 



BREAKING THE FRONTIER 27 

especially skillful iu riding. They are broad-shoul- 
dered, are good at the use of the bow and arrows, have 
strong necks, and are always holding their heads high 
in their pride. To sum up, these beings under the 
forms of men hide the fierce natures of beasts." 

The Goths were brave, but they could not stand 
against such men as these. The East-Goths, who 
dwelt about the Black Sea, were soon con- 

' The East- 

quered, and for nearly a century they con- Goths 

submit. 

tinned to be subject to the Huns. 

The West-Goths, who dwelt about the Danube, fled 
in terror before the countless hordes of the new-comers, 
and sought a refuge within the boundaries ^^^ ^^^^ 
of the Roman Empire. As many as two fh^e^Roman"*** 
hundred thousand fighting men, besides ^^p'"- 
thousands of old men, women, and children, gathered 
on the north bank of the Danube, and "stretching out 
their hands from afar, with loud lamentations," begged 
the Roman officers to permit them to cross the river 
and settle in the Roman lands. 

The Roman Emperor, after much discussion, granted 
their request ; but only on hard conditions, for he 
feared to have so many of the Goths in the land. The 
Gothic boys, he said, must be given up to the Romans 
as hostages, and the men must surrender their arms. 
The situation of the Goths was so serious that they 
were forced to agree to these terms ; but many of them 
found means to bribe the Roman officers to let them 
keep their arms with them. At last the crossing began ; 
and for many days an army of boats was kept busy 
ferrying the people across the stream, which at this 
point was more than a mile wide. 

In this way the West-Goths were saved from the 



28 TEE STOl^T OF TEE MTBDLE AGES 

Huns; but they soon found that it was only to suffer 
many injuries at the hands of the Roman officers. The 
Emperor had given orders that the Goths were to be 
fed and eared for until they could be settled on new 
lauds ; but the Roman officers stole the food intended 
for them, and oppressed them in other ways. Some of 
the Goths, indeed, fell into such distress that they sold 
their own children as slaves in order to get food. 

This state of affairs could not last long with so war- 
like a people as the Goths. One day, in the midst of a 
banquet which the Roman governor was giving to 
their leader, an outcry was heard in the palace-yard, 
and the news came that the Goths were being attacked. 
At once the Gothic leader drew his sword, saying he 
would stop the tumult, and went out to his men. 

From that time war began between the Romans and 
the West-Goths. 

About a year after this (in the year 378 a.d.) a great 

battle Avas fought near Adrianople, a city which lies 

about one hundred and forty miles north- 

Adrianopie wcst of Constantinople. The Emperor 

Valens was himself at the head of the 

Roman army. His flatterers led him to believe that 

there could be no doubt of his success ; so Valens rashly 

began the battle without waiting for the troops that 

were coming to assist him. 

The Romans w^ere at other disadvantages. They 
were hot and tired, and their horses had had no food. 
The men, moreover, became crowded together into a 
narrow space, where they could neither form their 
lines, nor use their swords and spears with effect. 

The victory of the Goths was complete. The Roman 
cavalry fled at the first attack ; then the infantry were 



BREAKING THE FEONTIEB 29 

surrounded and cut down by thousands. More than 
two-thirds of the Koiiiau army perished, and with them 
perished the Emperor Valens — no one knows just how. 

The eflfects of this defeat were very disastrous for 
the Romans. Before this time the Goths had been 
doubtful of their power to defeat the Romans in the 
open field. Now they felt confidence in themselves, 
and were ready to try for new victories. And this 
was not the worst. After the battle of Adrianople the 
river Danube can no longer be considered the boundary 
of the Empire. The Goths had gained a footing 
within the frontier and could Avander about at will. 
Other barbarian nations soon followed their example, 
and then still others came. As time went on, the 
Empire fell more and more into the hands of the 
barbarians. 

These effects w^ere not felt so much at first because 
the new Emperor, Theodosius, was an able man, and 
was wise enough to see that the best way 

. Goths quiet 

to treat the Goths was to make friends of under 

. . Theodosius. 

them. This he did, giving them lands to 
till, and taking their young men into the pay of his 
army; so during his reign the Goths were quiet, and 
even helped him to fight his battles against his Roman 
enemies. One old chief, who had remained an enemy 
of the Romans, was received with kindness by Theo- 
dosius. After seeing the strength and beauty of the 
city of Constantinople, he said one day : 

''This Emperor is doubtless a god upon earth; and 
whoever lifts a hand against him is guilty of his own 
blood." 

But the "wise and vigorous rule of Theodosius -was a 
short one, and came to an end in the year 395. After 



30 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

that, the Roman Empire was divided into an Eastern 
Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, and a 
Western Empire, with its capital at Rome. After that, 
too, the friendly treatment of the Goths came to an 
end, and a jealous and suspicious policy took its place. 

Moreover, a new ruler, named Alaric, had just been 

chosen by the Goths. He was a fiery young prince, and 

was the ablest ruler that the West-Goths 

becomes leader evcr had. IIc had servcd in the Roman 

of the Goths. , t i t i i i i -r» 

armies, and had there learned the Roman 
manner of making war. He was ambitious, too ; and 
when he saw that the Empire was weakened by 
division, and by the folly of its rulers, he decided that 
the time had come for action. 

So, as an old Gothic writer tells us, ''the new King 
took counsel with his people, and they determined to 
carve out new kingdoms for themselves, rather than, 
through idleness, to continue the subjects of others." 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Tell the story of Ulfilas, the missionary to the Goths. 

2. Imagine yourself a Gothic boy or girl, and describe the 

attacks of the Huns. 

3. Trace on a map the boundaries of the Eastern Empire, 

and of the Western Empire, after the death of TheodosiuB. 



IV 
WANDERINGS OF THE WEST-GOTHS 

Outline of Chapter 

The West-Goths in Greece; how Stilicho checked Alaric's 
conquests; how Alaric used tlie period of peace. 

Alaric's first invasion of Italy; Stilicho again checks his con- 
quests; Stilicho put to death by the Western Emperor. 

Alaric again invades Italy; three times besieges Rome; he 
cai)tures and plunders it (410 A.D.). 

Further plans of Alaric; his death and burial; the West-Goths 
settle in Spain. 

Up to this time the Goths had entered only a little 
way iiito the lands of the Empire. Now they were to 
begin a series of wanderings that took ^^^^.^ ^^^^^ 
them into Greece, into Italy, into Gaul, and the Goths 

' "^ ' into Greece. 

finally into the Spanish peninsula, where 

they settled down and established a power that lasted 

for nearly three hundred years. 

Their leader, Alaric, was wise enough to see that the 
Goths could not take a city so strongly walled as 
Constantinople. He turned his people aside from the 
attack of that place, and marched them to the plunder 
of the rich provinces that lay to the South. There 
they came into lands that had long been famous in the 
history of the world. Tlieir way first led theni through 
Macedonia, whence the great Alexander had set out to 
conquer the East. At the pass of Thermopyhp, more 
than eight hundred years before, a handful of heroic 
Greeks had held a vast army at bay for three whole 
days; but now their feebler descendants dared not 
attempt to stay the march of Alaric. The city of 

31 



32 



TEE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



Athens, beautiful with marble buildings and statuary, 
fell into the hands of the Gotlis without a blow. It 
was forced to pay a heavy ransom, and then was left 
"like the bleeding and empty skin of a slaughtered 
victim. ' ' 

From Athens Alaric led his forces by the istlimus of 
Corinth into the southern peninsula of Greece. City 
after city yielded to the conqueror without resistance. 
Everywhere villages were burned, cattle were driven 
off, precious vases, statues, gold and silver ornaments 




GOTHS ON THE MARCH 

were divided among the barbarians, and multitudes of 
the inhabitants were slain or reduced to slavery. 

In all the armies of the Roman Empire, at this time, 
there was but one general who was a match for Alaric 

in daring and skill. He, too, was descended 
checks°Aiaric. ^0^^ tlic sturdy barbarians of the North. 

His name was Stilicho, and he was now sent 
by the Emperor of the West to assist the Eastern 
Emperor. He succeeded in hemming in the Goths, at 
first, in the rocky valleys of Southern Greece. But the 
skill and perseverance of Alaric enabled him to get 
his men out of the trap, while his enemies feasted and 



WANDEBINGS OF TEE WEST-GOTHS 33 

danced in enjoyment of their triumph. Then the 
Eastern Emperor made Alaric the ruler of one of the 
provinces of the Empire, and settled his people on the 
eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea. In this way he 
hoped that the Goths might again be quieted and the 
danger turned aside. But Alaric only used the position 
he had won to gather stores of food, and to manufac- 
ture shields, lielmets, swords, and spears for his men, 
in preparation for new adventures. 

When all was ready, Alaric again set out, taking 
Avith him the entire nation of the West-Goths — men, 
women, and children — together with all 

' Alaric 

their property and the booty which they P^^'^^^^^j 
had won in Greece. Now their march was 
to the rich and beautiful lands of Italy, where Alaric 
hoped to capture Rome itself, and secure the treasures 
the Romans had gathered from the ends of the earth. 

But the time had not yet come for this. Stilicho 
was again in arms before him in the broad plains of 
the river Po. From Gaul, from the provinces of the 
Rhine, from far-off Britain, troops were hurried to the 
protection of Italy. On every side the Goths were 
threatened. Their long-haired chieftains, scarred with 
honorable wounds, began to hesitate; but their fiery 
young King cried out that he was resolved "to find in 
Italy either a kingdom or a grave!" 

At last, while the Goths were piously celebrating the 
festival of Easter, the army of Stilicho suddenly 
attacked them. The Goths fought stub- 
bornly; but after a long -and bloody battle defeats him. 
Alaric was obliged to lead his men from 
the field, leaving behind them the slaves and the booty 
which they had won. 



34 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Even then Alaric did not at once give up his plan of 
forcing his way to Koine. But his men were discour- 
aged; hunger and disease attacked them; their allies 
deserted them ; and at last the young King was obliged 
to lead his men back to the province on the Adriatic. 

For six years Alaric now aAvaited his time; while 
Stilicho, meanwhile, beat back other invaders who 
The Western sought to comc iuto Italy. But the Western 
murd"rT Euipcror was foolish, and thought the 

stilicho. danger was past. He listened to the ene- 

mies of Stilicho, and quarreled with him ; and at last 
he had him put to death. 

At once Alaric planned a new invasion. Barbarian 
warriors from all lands, attracted by his fame, flocked 
to his standard. The friends of Stilicho, also, came to 
his aid. The new generals in Italy proved to be worth- 
less; and the foolish Emperor shut himself up in fear 
in his palace in the northern part of the peninsula. 
Alaric meanwhile did not tarry. On and on he pressed, 
over the Alps, past the plains of the Po, past the palace 
of the Emperor, on to the "eternal city" of Rome 
itself. 

In the old days, the Romans had been able to conquer 
Italy and the civilized world, because they were a 
brave, sturdy people, with a genius for war and for 
government. But long centuries of unchecked rule 
had greatly weakened them. Now they led evil and 
unhealthful lives. They neither worked for themselves, 
nor fought in their country's cause. Instead, they 
spent their days in marble baths, at the gladiatorial 
fights and wild beast shows of the theaters, and in 
lounging about the Forum. 

In the old days Hannibal had thundered at the gates 



WANDEEINGS OF THE WEST-GOTHS 35 

of Rome in vain ; but it was not to be so now with 
Alaric. Three times in three successive years he 
advanced to the siege of the city. The 

, Alaric three 

first time he blockaded it till the people times besieges 

^ Kome. 

cried out in their hunger and were forced 
to eat loathsome food. Still no help came from the 
Emperor, and when they tried to overawe Alaric with 
the boast of the numbers of their city, he only replied : 
"The thicker the hay the easier it is mowed." 

When asked what terms he would give them, Alaric 
demanded as ransom all their gold, silver, and precious 
goods, together with their slaves who w^ere of bar- 
barian blood. In dismay they asked: 

"And what then will you leave to us?" 

"Your lives," he grimly replied. 

Alaric, however, was not so hard as his word. On 
payment of a less ransom than he had at first 
demanded, he consented to retire. But when the foolish 
Emperor, secure in his palace in Northern Italy, 
refused to make peace, Alaric advanced once more 
upon the doomed city, and again it submitted. This 
time Alaric set up a mock-Emperor of his own to rule. 
But in a few months he grew tired of him, and over- 
turned him with as little thought as he had shown in 
setting him up. As a great historian tells us of this 
Emperor, he was in turn "promoted, degraded, 
insulted, restored, again degraded, and again insulted, 
and finally abandoned to his fate. ' ' 

In the year 410 a.d., Alaric advanced a third time 
upon the city. This time the gates of 

f -^ <= Xhe Goths 

Rome were opened by slaves who hoped capture Rome 

to gain freedom through the city's fall. 

For the first time since the burning of Rome by the 



36 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Gauls, eight hundred years before, the Romans noAV 
saw a foreign foe within their gates — slaying, destroy- 
ing, plundering, committing endless outrages upon the 
people and their property. To the Romans it seemed 
that the end of the world was surely at hand. 

At the end of the sixth day Alaric and his Goths 
came forth from the city, carrying their booty and their 
captives with them. They now marched 
Ai&Ti!^ °^ ^^^^ ^^^^ south of Italy, destroying all 
who resisted and plundering what took 
their fancy. In this way they came into the southern- 
most part. There they began busily preparing to cross 
over into Sicily, to plunder that fertile province. 

But this was not to be. In the midst of the prepara- 
tions their leader Alaric — ''Alaric the Bold," as they 
loved to call him — suddenly sickened. Soon he grew 
worse ; and after an illness of only a few days, he died, 
leaving the Goths weakened by the loss of the greatest 
king they were ever to know. 

Alaric 's life had been one of the strangest in history, 
and his burial was equally strange. His followers 
wished to lay him where no enemy might 
Hisstrange disturb his gravc. To this end they com- 
pelled their captives to dig a new channel 
for a little river near by, and turn aside its waters. 
Then, in the old bed of the stream, they buried their 
beloved leader, clad in his richest armor, and mounted 
upon his favorite war horse. When all was finished, 
the stream was turned back into its old channel, and 
the captives were slain, in order that they might not 
reveal the place of the burial. And there, to this day, 
rest the bones of Alaric, the AVest-Gothic King. 

Of the AVest-Goths after the death of Alaric, we 



WANDEEINGS OF THE WEST-GOTHS 



37 



need say very little. The foolish Emperor of the West 
remained foolish to the end ; but his advisers 

The West- 

now saw that something must be done to Goths settle 

in Spain. 

get rid of the barbarians. The new leader 

of the Goths, too, was a wise and moderate man. He 

saw that his people, though they could fight well and 

overturn a state, were not yet 

ready to take the government of 

Rome for themselves. 

"I wish," he said, "not to de- 
stroy, but to restore and maintain 
the prosperity of the Roman Em- 
pire." 

Other barbarians had meanwhile 
pressed into the Empire ; so it Avas 
agreed that the Goths should 
march into Gaul and Spain, drive 
out the barbarians who had pushed 
in there, and rule the land in the 
name of the Empire of the West. 
This they did; and there they es- 
tablished a power which became 

strong and prosperous, and lasted until new barbarians 
from the North, and the IMoors from Africa, pressed in 
upon them, and brought, at the same time, their king- 
dom and their history to an end. 




WESTGOTUIC 
TOWER 



Review and Study Topics 

Trace on a map tlie wanderings of the West-Goths. 

Which do you think was doing the greater work for the 
world, Alaric or Stilielio? Why? 

Describe the capture of Rome by the Goths, from the stand- 
point of a Roman boy or girl. 

What does the story of the West-Goths prove concerning the 
power of the Eomans at that time? 



FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 

Outline of Chapter 

Other Germans enter the Empire; two hundred years of con- 
fusion begin. 

The Vandals enter Spain; they cross over into Africa; their 
cruel, greedy nature; they plunder Rome (455 A.D.). 

The Burgundians settle in the valley of the river Rhone. 

Attila, King of the Huns; he attacks Gaul, but is defeated 
(451); death of Attila. 

Fall of the Western Empire (476) ; Odoacer rules Italy. 

"While the West-Goths were winning lands and 

booty within the Empire, the other Germans could not 

long remain idle. They saw that the legions 

other Germans hip i ^ 

enter the had Dcen recalled irom the frontiers m 

Empire. i t i m 

order to guard Italy. They saw their own 
people suffering from hunger and want. Behind them, 
too, they felt the pressure of other nations, driving 
them from their pastures and hunting grounds. 

So, the news of Rome's weakness and Alaric's vic- 
tories filled other peoples with eagerness to try their 
fortunes in Southern lands. Before the West-Goths 
had settled down in Spain, other tribes had begun to 
stream across the borders of the Empire. Soon the 
stream became a flood, and the flood a deluge. All 
Germany seemed stirred up and hurled against the 
Empire. Wave after wave swept southward. Horde 
after horde appeared within the limits of the Empire, 
seeking lands and goods. 

For two hundred years this went on. Armies and 

38 



FALL OF THE WESTEEN EMPIRE 39 

nations went wandering up and down, burning, rob- 
bing, slaying, and making captives. It was a time of 
confusion, suffering, and change; when the "uncouth 
Goth," the "horrid Hun," and wild-eyed peoples of 
many a name, struggled for the lands of Rome. They 
sought only their own gain and advantage, and it 
seemed that everything was being overturned and 
nothing built up to take the place of what was 
destroyed. 

But this was only in seeming. Unknowingly, these 
nations were laying the foundations of a new civiliza- 
tion and a new world. For, out of this mixing of 
peoples and institutions, this blending of civilizations, 
arose the nations, the states, the institutions, of the 
world of today. 

In following the history of the AVest-Goths we have 
seen that some of these peoples had preceded the Goths 
into Spain. These were a race called the 
Vaxdals. They too were of German blood. f^%J^^^^^^ 
At one time they had dwelt on the shores 
of the Baltic Sea, near the mouth of tlie river Elbe. 
From there they had wandered southward and west- 
ward, struggling with other barbarian tribes and with 
the remaining troops of Rome's imperial army. After 
many hard-fought contests they had crossed the river 
Rhine. They had then struggled through Gaul, and at 
last had reached Spain. Now they were to be driven 
from that land, too, by the arrival of the West-Goths. 

Just at this time the governor of the Roman province 
of Africa rebelled against the Emperor's vandaiscros 
government. To get assistance against the AfricL"*(429). 
Romans, he invited the Vandals to come 
to Africa, promising them lands and booty. The Van- 



40 TEE STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

dais needed no second invitation. The Strait of 
Gibraltar, which separates the shores of Spain from 
Africa, is only fifteen miles wide ; but when once the 
Vandals had crossed that strait, they were never to be 
driven back again. 

Twenty-five thousand warriors, together with their 

women, children, and the old men, came at the call of 

the rebellious governor. There they set up 

and a kingdom of their own on Roman soil. A 

greedy nature. 

cruel, greedy people they were, but able. 
From their capital, — the old city of Carthage, — their 
pirate ships rowed up and down the Mediterranean, 
stopping now at this place and now at that, wherever 
they saw a chance for plunder. Their King was the 
most crafty, the most treacherous, the most merciless 
of the barbarian kings. 

''Whither shall we sail?" asked his pilot one day, as 
the King and his men set out. "Guide us," said the 
King, "wherever there is a people with whom God is 
angry." 

The most famous of the Vandal raids was the one 

which they made on the city of Eome, forty-five years 

after it had been plundered by Alaric. The 

The Vandals , c- i-i -r^ ii i 

plunder Rome rulcrs ot the Koiiians were as worthless now 
as they had been at the earlier day. Again, 
too, it was at the invitation of a Roman that the Van- 
dals invaded Roman territory. No defence of the city 
was attempted; but Leo, the holy bishop of Rome, went 
out with his priests, and tried to soften the fierceness 
of the barbarian King. For fourteen days the city 
remained in the hands of the Vandals, and it was plun- 
dered to their hearts' content. Besides much rich booty 
which they carried off, many works of art were broken 



FALL OF THE WESTEBN EMPIBE 



41 



and destroyed. Because of such destruction as tliis, 
the name "vandal" is still given to any one who 
destroys beautiful or useful things recklessly, or solely 
for the sake of destroying them. 

Another of the restless German peoples were the 
BuEGUNDiANS. They, too, had once dwelt in the north 
of Germany, and had crossed the river Burgundians 
Rhine in company with the Vandals. Grad- ®®"^® "* '^*"'' 
ually they had then spread southward into Gaul; and 
the result was the 
founding of a king- 
dom of the Burgun- 
dians in the valley of 
the Ehone river. 
From that day to this 
the name Burgundy, 
— as kingdom, duke- 
dom, county, prov- 
ince, — has remained 
a famous one in the 
geography of Eu- 
rope. But this peo- 
ple was never able to 
grow into a powerful 
and independent na- 
tion. 

While the Germans 
were finding new 
homes in Roman ter- 
ritory, the restless 

XT COURT OF THE HUNS 

Huns were ever pres- 
sing in from the rear, driving them on and taking their 
lands as they left. At the time when the Vandals were 




42 TEE STOET OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

establishing their kingdom in Africa, a great King 
arose among the Hnns. Ilis name was Attila. Though 
Attiia King ^^® ^^'^^ ^ great warrior and ruler, he was 
of the Huns, f^^ froui being a handsome man. He had 
a large head, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a 
beard, broad shoulders, and a short square body. 

The chief god of the Huns was a god of war. As 
they did not know how to make statues or images of 
him, they represented him by a sword or dagger. One 
day a shepherd found an old SAVord sticking out of 
the ground, and brought it to Attila. This, the King 
said, was a sign that the whole earth should be ruled 
by him. 

Whether he believed in this sign himself or not, 
Attila used his own sword so successfully that he 
formed the scattered tribes of the Huns into a great 
nation. By wars and treaties he succeeded in estab- 
lishing a vast empire, including all the peoples from 
the river Volga to the river Rhine. The lands of the 
Eastern Empire, too, were wasted by him, even up to 
the walls of Constantinople. The Emperor was forced 
to pay him tribute; and an Emperor's sister sent him 
her ring, and begged him to rescue her from the 
convent in which her brother had confined her. 

In the year 451 a.d., Attila gathered up his wild 
horsemen, and set out from his wooden capital in the 
valley of the Danube. Southward and 
ftucks Gaul westward they swept to conquer and de- 
stroy. It is said that Attila called himself 
the "Scourge of God." At any rate, his victims knew 
that ruin and destruction followed in his track; and 
where he had passed, they said, not a blade of grass 
was left growing. On and on the Huns passed, through 



- FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 43 

Germany, and into Western Gaul ; and men expected 
that all Europe would fall under the rule of this fierce 
people. 

This, however, did not come to pass. Near the city 
of Chalons, in Eastern France, a great battle was 
fought, in which Romans and Goths fought 
side by side against the common foe, and all defeated 
the peoples of Europe seemed engaged in 
one battle. Rivers of blood, it was said, flowed through 
the field, and whoever drank of their waters perished. 
At the close of the first day, the victory was still 
uncertain. On the next day Attila refused to renew 
the battle ; and when the Romans and Goths drew near 
his camp, they found it silent and deserted. The Huns 
had slipped away in the night, and returned to their 
homes on the Danube. 

Many legends came to cluster about this battle. In 
later ages men told how, each year on the night of 
the battle, the spirits of Goths and Huns arose from 
their graves, and fought the battle over again in the 
clouds of the upper air. 

The next year Attila came again, with a mighty 
army, into the Roman lands. This time he turned his 
attention to Italy. A city lying at the head 
of the Adriatic was destroyed; and its J^^^i^ °^ 
people then founded Venice on the isles of 
the sea, that they might thenceforth be free from 
such attacks. Perhaps Attila might have pressed on 
to Rome and taken it, too, as Alaric had done, and 
as the Vandals were to do three years later. But 
strange misgivings fell upon him. Leo, the holy bishop 
of Rome, appeared in his court and warned him ofi^. 
Attila, therefore, retreated, and left Rome untouched. 



44 TBE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Witliin" two years afterward he died ; and then his great 
empire dropped to pieces, aud his people fell to fighting 
once more among themselves. In this way Christian 
Europe was delivered from one of the greatest dangers 
that ever threatened it. 

Gaul, Spain, and Africa had now been lost by the 
Romans; but amid all these troubles, the imperial gov- 
ernment, both in the East and in the 

Empire W6). ^^'^^t' still wcut on. In the West the 
power had fallen more and more into the 
hands of chiefs of the Roman army. These men were 
often barbarians by blood, and did not care to be 
emperors themselves. Instead, however, they set up 
and pulled down emperors at will, as Alaric had once 
done. 

In the year 476 a.d. — just thirteen hundred years 
before the signing of our Declaration of Indepen- 
dence, — the Emperor who was then ruling in the West 
was a boy of tender years, named Romulus Augustulus. 
He bore the names of the first of the kings of Rome, 
and of the first of the emperors ; but he was to be the 
last of both. A new leader had now arisen in the 
army, — a gigantic German, named Odoacer. When 
Odoacer was about to come into Italy to enter the 
Roman army, a holy hermit had said to him : 

"Follow out j^our plan, and go. There you will 
soon be able to throw away the coarse garment of skins 
which you now wear, and will become wealthy and 
powerful. ' ' 

He had followed this advice, and had risen to be 
the commander of the Roman army. The old leader, 
who had put Romulus Augustulus on the throne, was 



FALL OF TEE WESTEEN EMPIBE 45 

now slain by Odoacer, and the boy was quietly put 
aside. 

Odoacer thus made himself ruler of Italy ; but he 
neither took the name of Emperor himself, nor gave it 
to any one else. He sent messengers instead 
to the Emperor of the East, at Constanti- ^ifigg'^itaiy. 
nople, and laid at his feet the crown and 
purple robe. He said, in actions, if not in words : 

"One Emperor is enough for both East and West. 
J will rule Italy in your name, and as your agent." 

This is sometimes called the Fall of the Western 
Empire ; and so it was. Yet there was not so verj'- 
much change, after all. Odoacer ruled Italy in much 
the same way as the emperors had done, except that 
his rule was better and stronger. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Was it because the Germans were stronger now than in 

former days, or because the Komans were weaker, that 
the barbarians were able to overrun the Empire? 

2. Trace on a map the wanderings of the Vandals. 

3. What part of France still bears the name of the Burgun- 

dians? 

4. What difference was there between the troops with which 

Odoacer overthrew the Western Empire and those which 
Alaric led? 



VI 
EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBARDS 

Outline of Chapter 

The East-Goths freed by the death of Attila; early life of their 

King, Theodoric. 
Theodoric overthrows Odoacer; his wise rule in Italy; the 

Eastern Emperor Justinian overthrows the East-Goths. 
The Lombards settle in Italy (568); their character; their 

kingdom lasts until 774. 

Aftek ruling for sixteen years, Odoacer was over- 
thrown and a new ruler arose in his place. This was 
the head of a new invading people, the 
last-Goths. East-Goths. From the days of the battle 
of Adrianople to the death of Attila, the 
East-Goths had been subject to the Huns. At the battle 
of Chalons they had fought on the side of the Huns, 
and against their kinsmen, the West-Goths, Now, 
however, they were free, and a great leader had arisen 
among them in the person of Theodoric, the descendant 
of a long line of Gothic kings. 

When Theodoric was a young boy, he was sent as 

a hostage to Constantinople, where he lived for ten 

years. There he learned to like the 

Early life of culturcd manucrs of the Romans, but he 

Theodonc. ' 

did not forget how to fight. When he 
returned home, a handsome lad of seventeen, he gath- 
ered together an army, and without guidance from 
his father captured an important city. This act showed 
his ability ; and when his father died he was acknowl- 
edged as the King of his people. He was a man of 

46 



EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBARDS 47 

great strength and courage ; he was also wise, and was 
anxious for his people to improve their condition. For 
some years his people had been wandering up and 
down in the Eastern Empire ; but they were unable to 
master that land because of Constantinople's massive 
walls. So, with the consent of the Emperor, Theodoric 
now decided to lead his East-Goths into Italy, drive 
Odoacer from the land, and settle his people there. 

The Goths set out over the Eastern Alps, two 
hundred thousand strong. \Yith them went their 
Avives and children, their slaves and cattle, 
and behind came twenty thousand heavy odoacer^fMS)^ 
ox-carts laden with their goods. But 
Odoacer proved a stubborn fighter. Several hard 
l)attles had to be fought, and a siege three years long 
had to be laid to his capital, before he was beaten. 
Then Theodoric, for almost the first and last time in 
his life, did a mean and treacherous act. His con- 
quered enemy was invited to a friendly banquet ; and 
there he was put to death with his own sword. 

In this way Theodoric completed the conquest tliat 
made him master of the whole of Italy, together with 
a large territorj^ to the north and east of the Adriatic 
Sea. 

For thirty-three years after that, Theodoric ruled 
over the kingdom of the East-Goths, as a wise and able 
king. Equal justice was granted to all, 
whether they were Goths or Italians ; and ^'^L'"^® "^ 

•' ' Tneodonc. 

Theodoric sought in every way to lead his 
people into a settled and civilized life. The old roads, 
aqueducts, and public buildings were repaired ; and 
new works in many places were erected. 

Theodoric was not only a great warrior and states- 



48 



TEE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



man ; he was also a man of deep and wide thought. If 
au3^ man and any people were suited to build up a new 
kingdom out of the ruins of the Empire, and so end 
the long period of disorder and confusion which we 
call the Dark Ages, it would seem that it was Theo- 




TOMB OF THEODORIC 

doric and his East-Goths. But no sooner was Theo- 

doric dead than his kingdom began to fall to pieces. 

The Eastern Empire had now passed into the hands 

of an able Emperor, who is renowned as a conqueror, 

a builder, and a law-giver. His name was 

Justinian ^ . . - , , , 

overthrows the Justmian ; and he was served by men as 

great as himself. Under their skillful 

attacks, much of the lands Avhich had been lost were 

now won back. The Vandal kingdom in Africa was 

overturned; the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sar- 



EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBABDS 



49 



dinia were recovered ; and at last, after years of hard 
fighting, the East-Goths too were conquered. The 
last remnant of that race then wandered to the lands 
north of the Alps, and disappeared from history. 

It was only for a little while, however, that the 
Eastern Emperor was able once more to rule all Italy. 
Within thirteen years a new Germanic 

Lombards 

people appeared on the scene, — the last to settle in 
find a settlement within the Empire. These 
were the Lombards, or "Langobards," as they were 
called from their long beards. Ten generations before, 
according to their legends, a wise queen had led their 
race across the Baltic Sea, 
from what is now Sweden, 
to Germany. Since then 
they had gradually worked 
their way south, until now 
they were on the borders 
of Italy. The northern 
parts of the peninsula at 
this time were almost un- 
inhabited, as a result of 
years of war and pesti- 
lence. The resistance to the Lombards, therefore, was 
very weak; and the whole valley of the river Po — 
thenceforth to this day called ''Lombardy" — passed 
into their hands almost at a blow. 

These Lombards were a rude people and but little 
civilized, when they first entered Italy. It was only 
a short time before they settled there that 
they even became Christians. A wild story the^LombarL. 
is told of the King who led them into 
Italy. He had slain with his own hand the King of 




COMB OF A 

QUEEN. 



LOMBARD 



50 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

another German folk, and from his enemy's skull he 
had made a drinking cup, mounted in gold. His wife 
was the daughter of the King he had slain. Some time 
after, as he sat long at the table in his capital, he grew 
boisterous; and sending for the cup, he forced his 
Queen to drink from it, bidding her "drink joyfully 
with her father." At this the Queen's heart was 
filled with grief and anger, and she plotted how she 
might revenge her father upon her husband. So, 
while the King slept one night, she caused an armed 
man to creep into the room and slay him. In this way 
she secured her revenge ; but she, and all who had 
helped her, came to evil ends, — for, as an old writer 
says, "the hand of Heaven was upon them for doing 
so foul a deed." 

The Lombards were not so strongly united as most 
of the Germans, nor was their form of government so 
highly developed. Many independent bands of Lom- 
bards settled districts in Central and Southern Italy, 
under the rule of their own leaders, or "dukes." In 
this way the peninsula was cut up into many govern- 
ments. The northern part was under the Lombard 
King; a number of petty dukes each ruled over his 
own district ; and the remainder, including the city of 
Rome, was ruled by the officers of the Eastern 
Emperor. 

The kingdom of the Lombards lasted for about two 

hundred years. Then it, too, was overturned, and the 

land was conquered by a new German 

kingdom lasts peoplc, the grcatcst of them all and the 

till 774. 1 L- ^ o 

only one, with the exception of the Eng- 
lish, that was to establish a lasting kingdom. These 



EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBAEBS 51 

were the Franks, who settled in Gaul, and founded 
France. 

But, before we trace their history, we must first turn 
aside and see how the Christian Church was gaining 
in strength and power in this dark period of warfare 
and confusion. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Make a table showing the peoples who settled in the Roman 

Empire between 375 and 568. Head the columns (1) 
Name of People, (2) Where they came from, (3) Where 
they settled, (4) Leader. (For the Angles and Saxons 
who settled in Britain, see ch. xvi.) 

2. In what ways was Theodoric a greater ruler than Alaric? 

3. What qualities of character are shown by the story of the 

Lombard King? 



VII 
GROWTH OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH 

Outline of Chapter 

The Christian religion established in the Roman Empire before 
the coming of the Germans; how the Church was governed. 

Early Church disputes; the "Arian" heresy; separation of the 
Eastern and Western churches; effect of the coming of the 
Germans; rise of hermits and monks. 

Pope Gregory the Great; Gregory sends missionaries to Eng- 
land; importance of Gregory's work as Pope. 

In another book in this series you may have read 

of the trials which the early Christians had to endure 

under the Roman rule, — of how they wer« 

The Christians , , , . , , . . , 

and the looKed upou With scom and suspicion ; how 

Empire. i i i 

they were persecuted; how they were 
forced to meet in secret caves called catacombs, where 
they worshiped and buried their dead ; and how at 
last, after many martyrs had shed their blood in wit- 
ness to their faith, the Emperor Constautine allowed 
them to worship freely, and even himself became a 
Christian. After this, Christianity had spread rapidly 
in the Roman Empire ; so that, by the time the German 
tribes began to pour across the borders, almost all of 
the people who were ruled by the Emperor had 
adopted the Christian religion, and the old Roman 
worship of Jupiter, Mars, and Minerva was fast 
becoming a thing of the past. 

When Christianity had become the religion of many 
people, it was necessary for the Church to have some 

52 



GIIOWTH OF CHEISTIAN CHURCH 



53 



form of organization; and such an organization speed- 
ily began to grow. First we find some of the Christians 
set aside to act as priests, and have charge 
of the services in the churches. We find ^/If p?"^ », 

of the Church, 

next among the priests in each city one 
who comes to be styled the "overseeing priest" or 
bishop, whose duty it is to look after the affairs of 
the churches in his district. Gradually, too, the bish- 
ops in the more important cities come to have 
certain powers over the 
bishops of the smaller cit- 
ies about them ; these were 
then called ' ' archbishops. ' ' 
And finally, there came to 
be one out of the many 
hundred bishops of the 
Church who was looked up 
to more than any other 
person, and whose advice 
was sought on all impor- 
tant Church questions. 
This was because he had 
charge of the Church in 
Rome, the most important 
city of the Empire, and be- 
cause he was believed to 
be the successor of St. 
Peter, the chief of the 

Apostles. The name "Pope," which means father, was 
given to him ; and it was his duty to watch over all 
the affairs of the Church on earth, as a father watches 
over the affairs of his family. 

Of course, all this organization did not spring up at 
once, ready made. Great things grow slowly, and it 




BISHOP ON THRONE 
Notice the staff (crozier) which he 



54 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

was only slowly that this organization grew. Some- 
times disputes arose as to the amount of power the 
priests should have over the "laymen," as 

Early \ . J ^ 

Church those who were not priests were called ; and 

disputes. 

sometimes there were disputes among the 
''clergy" or churchmen, themselves. Sometimes these 
disputes were about power, and lands, and things of 
that sort ; for now the Church had become wealthy and 
powerful, through gifts made to it by rulers and pious 
laymen. More often the question to be settled had to 
do with the belief of the Church, — that is, with the 
exact meaning of the teachings of Christ and the 
Apostles, as they are recorded in the Bible and in the 
writings of the early Christian teachers. Many of the 
questions that were discussed seem strange to us, but 
men were very much in earnest about them then. And 
at times, when a hard question arose concerning the 
belief of the Church, men would travel hundreds of 
miles to the great Church Councils or meetings where 
the matter was to be decided, and undergo hardships 
and sufferings without number, to see that the question 
was decided as they thought Avas right. 

One of the questions which caused much trouble was 
brought forward by an Egyptian priest named Arius. 

He claimed that Christ the Son was not 
^uestio^"*" equal in poAver and glory to God the 

Father. Another Egyptian priest named 
Athanasius thought this was a wrong belief, or 
"heresy"; so he combated the belief of Arius in every 
way that he could. Soon the whole Christian world 
rang with the controversy. To settle the dispute the 
first great Council of the Church was called by the 
Emperor Constantine in the year 325 a.d. It met at - 



GBOWTH OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH 55 

Nicaea, a city in Asia Minor. There ''Arianism" was 
condemned, and the teaching of Athanasius was 
declared to be the true belief of the Church. But this 
did not end the struggle. The followers of Arius 
would not give up, and for a time they were stronger 
than their opponents. Five times Athanasius was 
driven from his position of archbishop in Egypt, and 
for twenty years he was forced to live an exile from 
his native land. But he never faltered, and never 
ceased to write, preach, and argue for the belief which 
the Council had declared to be the true one. Even 
after Arius and Athanasius were both dead, the quarrel 
still went on. Indeed, it was nearly two hundred years 
before the last of the "Arians" gave up their view 
of the matter ; but in the end the teachings of 
Athanasius became the belief of the whole Church. 

One consequence of this dispute about Arianism was 
that the churches in the East and West began to drift 
apart. The Western churches followed the separation of 
lead of the bishop of Rome and supported wegtem*"*^ 
Athanasius in the struggle, while the East- churches. 
ern churches for a time supported Arius. Even after 
Arianism had been given up in the East as well as in 
the West, a quarrel still existed concerning the relation 
of the Holy Ghost to the Father and Son. As time 
went on, still other disputes arose between the East 
and West. The Roman clergy shaved their faces and 
were not permitted to marry, while the Greek clergy 
let their beards grow, and were permitted to marry. 
Moreover Rome and Constantinople could not agree 
as to whether leavened bread (i.e., bread made with 
yeast) or unleavened bread (without yeast) should be 
used in the Lord's Supper. Still less could the great 



56 THE STOEY 0^' THE MIDDLE AGES 

bishop of Constantinople, where the Emperor held his 
court, admit that the power of the bishop of Rome was 
above his own. Each side looked with contempt and 
distrust upon the other; for the one were Greeks and 
the other Latins, and the differences of race and lan- 
guage made it difficult for them to understand one 
another. 

Gradually the breach grew wider and wider. At 
last, after many many years of ill feeling, the two 
churches broke off all relations. After that there was 
always a Greek Catholic Church (which exists to this 
day) as well as a Eoman one; and the power of the 
Pope was acknowledged only by the churches in the 
"Western or Latin half of the world. 

The Church, of course, was as much changed by the 

conquests of the Germans as was the rest of the Roman 

world. The barbarians who settled in the 

Effect of the <. i -n • 

coming of lauds of the Empire had already become 

the Germans. ^ • • p 

Christians, for the most part, before the 
conquest, but they Avere still ignorant barbarians. 
Worst of all, the views which they had been taught at 
first were those held by the Arians ; and this made 
them more feared and hated by the Roman Christians. 
Among the citizens of the Empire, as well as among 
the barbarians, there was also much wickedness, 
oppression, and unfair dealing. 

"The world is full of confusion," wa^ote one holy 
man. "No one trusts any one; each man is afraid of 
his neighbor. Many are the fleeces beneath which are 
concealed innumerable wolves, so that one might live 
more safely among enemies than among those who 
appear to be friends." 

The result of this was that man began to turn from 



GROWTH OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH 



57 



the world to God. Many went out into the deserts of 
Egypt and other waste and solitary places, and be- 
came lieririits. There they lived, clotlied in 

•^ ' . Rise of 

rags or the skins of wild beasts, and eating hermits and 

, monks. 

the coarsest food, in order that they might 
escape from the temptations of the world. The more 
they punished their bodies, the more they thought it 
helped their souls ; so all sorts of strange deeds were 
performed by them. Perhaps the strangest case of all 
was that of a man named Simeon, who was called 
"Stylites," from the way in which he lived. For 
thirty years, — day and night, summer and winter, — he 
dwelt on the top of a high pillar, so narrow that there 

was barely room for liim to lie 

down. There, for hours at a time, 

he would stand praying, Avith his 

arms stretched out in the form of 

a cross ; or else he would pass 

hours bowing his wasted body 

rapidly from his forehead to his 

feet, until at times the people who 

stood by counted a thousand bows 

without a single stop. 

Such things as these happened 

more frec[uently in the Eastern 

than they did in the Western 

Church. In the West, men were 

more practical, and when they 

wished to flee from the world, 

they went into waste places and 

„ * , . . . ,, , A MONK 

founded monasteries, w h e r e 

the "monks," as they were called, dwelt together 

under the rule of an abbot. 




58 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

In the West, too, the power of the bishop of Rome 
became much greater than that possessed in the East 
by the bishop of Constantinople. It was' because the 

Pope was already the leading man in 
thTpope. Rome that Leo went out to meet the Huns 

and the Vandals, and tried to save Rome 
from them. About one hundred and forty years later, 
Pope Gregory the Great occupied even a higher posi- 
tion. He not only had charge of the churches near 
Rome, and was looked up to by the churches of Gaul, 
Spain, and Africa more than Leo had been ; but he also 
ruled the land about Rome much as an emperor or 
king ruled his kingdom. 

Gregory was born of a noble and wealthy Roman 
family. When he inherited his fortune he gave it all 

to found seven monasteries, and he himself 

Pope Gregory i • n 

the Great bccame a monk m one of these. There he 

(590-604). 

lived a severe and studious life. At length, 
against his own wishes, he was chosen by the clergy 
and people to be Pope. This was in the very midst of 
the Dark Ages. The Lombards had just come into 
Italy, and everything was in confusion. Everywhere 
cities were ruined, churches burned, and monasteries 
destroyed. Farms were laid waste and left unculti- 
vated, and wild beasts roamed over the deserted fields. 
For twenty-seven years, Gregory wrote, Rome had 
been in terror of the sword of the Lombards. "What 
is happening in other countries," he said, "we know 
not ; but in this the end of the world seems not only 
to be approaching, but to have actually begun." The 
rulers that the Eastern Emperors set up in Italy, after 
it had been recovered from the East-Goths, either 
could not or would not help. And to make matters 



GBOWTH OF CHRISTIAN CHUECH 



59 



worse, famine and sickness came, and the people died 
hy hundreds. 

So Gregory was obliged to act not only as the bishop 
of Rome, but as its ruler also. He caused processions 
to march about the city, and prayers to be said, to 
stop the sickness. He caused grain to be brought and 
given to the people, so that they might no longer die 
of famine. He also defended the city against the 
Lombards, until a peace could be made. In this way 
a beginning was made of the rule of the Pope over 
Rome, which did not come to an end until the year 
1871. 

Gregory was not only bishop of Rome, and ruler of 
the city. He was also tlie head of the whole Western 
Church, and was constantly busy with its affairs. 

Before he was chosen Pope, Gregory was passing 
through the market-place at Rome, one day, and came 
to the spot where slaves — white slaves — 
were sold. There he saw some beautiful, fhe^Engifsh^ 
fair-haired boys. *^*^* ^°^^' 

"P>om what country do these boys come?" he asked. 

"From the island of Britain," was the answer. 

"Are they Christians?" 

"No," he was told; "they are still pagans." 

"Alas!" exclaimed Gregory, "what a pity that lads 
of such fair faces should lack inward grace. ' ' 

Then he asked of what nation they were. 

"They are Angles," replied their owner. 

"They should be called angels, not Angles," said 
Gregory, "for they have angelic faces. From what 
province of Britain are they?" 

"From Deira," said the man, naming a kingdom in 
the northern part of the island. 



60 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

"Then," said Gregory, making a pun in the Latin, 
"they must be rescued de ira [from the wrath] of God. 
And what is the name of their king?" 

"^Ua," was the answer. 

"Yea," said Gregory, as he turned to go, "Alleluia 
must be sung in the land of ^lla." 

At first Gregory planned to go himself as missionary 

to convert the peoples of Britain. In this he was 

disappointed ; but when he became Pope he 

missionaries scnt a uiouk named Augustine as leader of 

to the £ng^lish. 

a band of missionaries. By their preaching, 
Christianity was introduced into the English kingdoms, 
and the English were gradually won from the old 
German Avorsliip of Woden and Thor. 

Gregory also had an important part in winning the 
West-Goths and Lombards from Arianism to the true 
faith. In all that he did Gregory's action seemed so 
wise -and good that men said he was counselled by the 
Holy Spirit ; and in the pictures of him the Holy Spirit 
is always represented, in the form of a dove, hovering 
about his head. 

Gregory has been called the real father of the Papacy 

of the Middle Ages. This is no small praise, for the 

Papacy, in those dark ages, was of great 

Importance of . /-^,l • i 

Gregory's scrvicc to Cliristendom. In later ages, 

■work. 

popes sometimes became corrupt ; and at 
last the Reformation came, in which many nations of 
the West threw oft' their obedience. But in the dark 
days of the Middle Ages, all the AVestern nations 
looked up to the Pope as the head of the Church on 
earth, and the influence of the popes was for good. 
There was very little order, union, and love for right 
and justice in the Middle Ages, as it was ; but no one 



GROWTH OF CHBISTIAN CHVBCH qi 

can imagine how much greater would have been the 
confusion, the lawlessness, and the disorder without 
the restraining influence of the Papacy. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. What model did the Christians take .n organizing the 

government of the church? Why was this a eood thiuL' 
for the world? ^ 

2. Would the separation of the Eastern and Western churches 

have been so likely to come about if tlie Empire had not 
first separated into an Eastern and a Western half? 

3. Make a list of the good things which Gregory the Great did. 



VIII 
RISE OF THE FRANKS 

Outline of Chapter 

The work of the Franks; their first settlement in Gaul; their 

early weakness. 
What Clovis did for the Franks; he overthrows Syagrius; 

becomes sole King of the Franks; he conquers the Alle- 

nianians; wars with the Burgundians and Goths. 
The Franks become Christians; importance of their conversion. 
Why the power of the Franks was permanent; relations of 

Franks and Romans. 

The AVest-Goths, the Burgundians, the Vandals, the 

East-Goths, and the Ijoinhai-ds, all lielped in their own 

way to make Kuroi)e what it is today ; yet 

til'e^ F^ranks"^ uoue of tluMu suc'ceeded in founding a 

power that was to last as a separate state. 

Their work was largely to break doAvn the rule of the 

Western Empire. The ))uildiug up of a new state, to 

take its place, was to be the work of another people, 

the Franks. 

The Franks were the earliest of all the German 
invaders to settle in the Roman province of Gaul, but 
they were the last to establish a power of their own 
in that land. 

Gaul, in the five hundred years that had passed since 
its conquest by «Iulius Caesar, had become more Roman 
even than Italy itself. But its long rule by foreigners 
had weakened its strength. The spirit of patriotism 
had died out, and the people in the latter days of the 
Empire were oppressed by heavy taxes. So Gaul, 
equally with the other provinces, was unable to otfer 
resistance to the barbarians. 

62 



RISE OF TEE FEANKS 



63 



A hundred years before the West-Goths crossed the 
Danube, bands of Franks had been allowed to cross 
the Rhine, from their homes on the right 

, „ . . Their first 

bank of that river, and to establish them- settlement 

in Gaul. 

selves as the allies or subjects of Rome on 

the western bank. There they dwelt, gaining in 

numbers and in power, until news came of the deeds 




FRANKS CROSSING THE RHINE 

of Alaric. When the Vandals, Burgundians, and other 
Germanic tribes tried to cross the Rhine, the Franks 
on the left bank resisted them, but their resistance was 
overcome. 

Then the Franks also set out to build up a power of 
their own within the Roman territory. Gradually they 
occupied what is now northern France, together with 
Belgium and Holland. AVhen the Iluns swept into 
Gaul, tlie Franks fought against them, side by side 
Avith the Romans and West-Goths. And, wiien Attila 
was defeated and had retired, the Franks were allowed 



G4 



TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



to take possession of certain cities in the valley of the 
Rhine which the Huns had won from the Romans. 

So, by the time that Odoacer overthrew the last of 

the Roman Emperors of the "West, the Franks had 

secured a firm footing in the Empire. But 

Their early fhey werc Still hcathcn, and they were j^et 

weakness. - ^ ^ ^ 

far from being strong as a people. They 
had not yet learned, like the Goths, to wear armor or 
to fight on horseback. They still went to war half- 
naked, armed only with a l)arl)ed javelin, a sword, and 

an ax or tomahawk which 
they used both for strik- 
ing and hurling. They 
wore not united, but were 
divided into a large num- 
ber of small tribes, each 
ruled over by its own 
petty king. 

Besides all this, the 
Franks had many rivals, 
even in Gaul itself. In the 
southern part of that land, 
reaching across the Pyre- 
nees and taking in nearly 
the whole of Spain, was 
the kingdom of the West- 
Goths. In the southeast- 
ern part was the kingdom 
of the Burgundians. In 
the central part, the re- 
gion that included the river Seine, a Roman officer 
named Syagrius still ruled, though the last of the 
Emperors of the West had fallen. And to the east of 




ARMS OF THE FRANKS 



EISE OF THE FRANKS 



65 



Gaul were tribes who still remained on German soil — 
the Thuringians, some tribes of the Saxons, and the 
AUemanians. 

It was mainly due to one man that the Frankish 
power was not overcome, but instead was able to over- 
come all its enemies. This man was Clovis, 

What Clovis 

the Kine of one of the little bands of the did for them 

, (481-511). 

Franks. Five years after the fall of Rome, 
he succeeded his father as King of his tribe. Though 
he was only sixteen years of age 
at that time, he soon proved him- 
self to be one of the ablest, but 
alas! one of the craftiest and 
crudest leaders of this crafty and 
cruel people. In the thirty years 
that he ruled, he united aH. the 
Franks under his own rule ; he 
greatly improved the arms and 
organization of the army; he ex- 
tended their territory to the south, 
east, and west; and he caused his 
people to be baptized as Chris- 
tians. 

One of the first deeds of Clovis 
was to make war on Syagrius, the 
Roman ruler. In this war the 
Franks were completely success- 
ful. Syagrius was defeated, and 
put to death ; and the district 
over which he ruled became sub- 
ject to Clovis. A story is told of 
this war which shows the rude and independent spirit 
of the Franks. When the booty was being divided by 




A FUANKISII CHIEF 
Notice Ills long hair. 



66 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

lot after the battle, Clovis wished to obtain a beautiful 

vase that had been taken from one of the churches, 

that he might return it to the priests. But 

the'va^s^e ^^^ °^ ^^^^ Franks cried out : 

' ' Thou shalt have only what the lot gives 
thee!" And saying this he broke the vase with his 
battle-ax. 

Clovis could do nothing then to resent this insult. 

But the next year he detected this soldier in a fault, 

and slew him in the presence of the army, saying : 

"It shall be done to thee as thou didst to the vase!" 

After the overthrow of Syagrius, Clovis turned to 

the conquest of other neiglibors. One by one he set 

to work to rid himself of the other kings of 

sole Kfil^^of the Franks. Some he conquered by force ; 

the Franks. " 

others he ovewame by treachery. He per- 
suaded the son of one king to kill his father; then he 
had the son put to death for the crime, and persuaded 
the people to take him as their king. Another king 
and his son were slain because they had failed to help 
Clovis in his wars; and he took their kingdom also. A 
third king was slain liy Clovis *s OAvn hand, after he 
had been betrayed into his power. Still otliers of his 
rivals and relatives were got rid of in the same way. 
Then, when all were gone, he assembled the people and 
said: 

"Alas! I have now no relatives to lend me aid in 
time of need." 

But he did this, as an old writer says, not because 
he was made sad by their death, but craftily, that he 
might discover whether there remained any one else 
to kill. 

In this way Clovis made himself sole King of the 



RISE OF THE FRANKS 67 

Franks. Already he had begun to extend his rule 
over other branches of the German people. The AUeman- 
ians, who dwelt to the eastward of the Franks, were 
beaten in a war which lasted several years, 

He conquers 

and were forced to take the King of the the AUe- 

manians. 

Franks as their overlord. After this the 
Franks began to settle in the valley of the river Main, 
where the Allemanians had dwelt ; and in the course of 
time this district came to be called Franconia, from 
their name. 

Several wars too were waged between Clovis and 
the Burgundians; and here also the power of the 
Franks was increased. Most important of 

Wars with the 

all were the conquests made from the Burgundians 

^ and Goths. 

West-Goths, who held Southern Gaul and 
Spain. Again and again Clovis led his Franks against 
this people. At one time Theodorie, the King of the 
East-Goths, came to their aid and defeated Clovis with 
terrible slaughter. But in the end the Franks were 
victorious, and most of Southern Gaul was added to 
the Frankish territory. 

Thus Clovis won for the Franks a kingdom which 
reached from the river Rhine on the north and east, 
almost to the Pyrenees mountains on the south. To 
all this land, which before had borne the name Gaul, 
the name "Francia" was gradually applied, from the 
race that conquered it ; and under the name of France 
it is still one of the most powerful states of Europe. 

When Clovis first became King, the Franks wor- 
shiped the old gods, Woden and Thor. Before he died, 
however, he and most of his people had been baptized 
and become Christians. His conversion came about in 
this way. While he was fighting against the Alleman- 



68 



IRE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



ians, lie saw his Franks one day driven from the field 

by the enemy. He prayed to the old gods to turn the 

defeat into victory, but still his troops gave 

The Franks 

become WHy. Then he bethought him that his wife 

Christians. ' ... 

Clotilda had long been urgnig him to give 
up his old gods and become a Christian. He determined 

now to try the God 
of his wife ; so he 
cried out : 

"0 Christ Jesus, 
I beseech thee for 
aid ! If thou wilt 
grant me victory 
over these enemies, 
I will believe in 
thee and be bap- 
tized in thy 
name!" 

AVith this he re- 
newed the battle, 
and at last won a 
great victory. As 
a result, Clovis be- 
came a Christian, 
a n d more than 
half of his war- 
riors decided to 
follow his ex- 
ample. When the 
i!.vi'ii.sM lu iLuvis news was brought 

to the priests, they 
were filled with joy, and at once preparations were 
made for the baptism. Painted awnings were hung 
over the streets. The churches were draped in white. 




EISE OF THE FEANES 69 

and clouds of sweet smelling smoke arose from the 
censers in which incense was burning. The King was 
baptized first, and as he approached the basin the 
bishop cried out : 

"Bow thy head, King, and adore that which thou 
hast burned, and burn that which thou hast adored ! ' ' 

After this, Clovis was, in name, a Christian, but his 
conversion was only half a conversion. He changed 
his beliefs, but not his conduct. AVhen the story was 
told him of the way Jesus suffered death on the cross, 
he grasped his battle-ax fiercely anji exclaimed: 

"If 1 had been there with my Franks I would have 
revenged His wrongs ! ' ' 

So, in spite of his conversion, Clovis remained a rude 
warrior, a cruel and unscrupulous ruler. Nevertheless, 
the conversion of the Franks was of very 

Importance 

great importance. The Goths, Vandals, and of their 

o -^ conversion. 

Burgundians, had all been Christians at 
the time they invaded the Empire, but their Chris- 
tianity was not of the kind that the Romans of the 
West accepted. They were Arian Christians, and, as 
we have seen, there was great hatred between the 
Arians and the Roman or Athanasian Christians. In 
Africa, Spain, and Italy, therefore, the people hated 
their Arian masters. But it was different with the 
Franks. Because they believed as the Roman Chris- 
tians did, their Roman subjects in Gaul accepted and 
supported their rule, and the Pope shoAved himself 
friendly to them. 

This is one of the two chief reasons why the Frankish 
power was permanent. The other reason was that the 
Franks did not wholly leave their old homes as 
the other Germans did when they set out on their con- 



70 TEE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

quest. The Franks kept wliat they already had, while 

adding to it the neighboring lands which they had con- 

why the quered. So their increase in power was a 

Frlnks^ias* growth, as Well as a conquest; and this 

permanent. made it morc lasting. 

AVhen the barbarians conquered portions of the 

Roman Empire tlu^y did not kill or drive out the people 

who already lived there. Usually they con- 

Relations of .,,. '^i 

Franks and tcntcd thcmselvcs With taking some or the 

Bomans. i t p i i ■> 

lands tor themselves, and making the 
people pay to them the taxes which they had before 
paid to the Roman emperors. So it was with the 
Franks. The people of Gaul were allowed to remain, 
and to keep most of their lands; but the Franks, 
although they were not nearly so numerous as the 
Romans, ruled over the state. The old inhabitants 
were highly civilized, while the Franks were just 
taking the first stej)s in civilization. 

"We make fun of them,'' wrote one of these Romans, 
"we despise them, — but we fear them also." 

As the 3^ears went by, the differences between the 
conquerors and the conquered became less. The 
Romans found that times were changed, and they had 
to adopt the habits of the Franks in some respects. 
The Franks had already adopted the religion of their 
subjects; they began also to adopt their language and 
some of their customs. In this way, the two peoples 
at last became as one ; but it was not until long after 
the time of Clovis that tliis end was fully reached. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Compare Clovis i^ith Theodoric flip East-Goth. 

2. What does the story of the vase show concerning the power 

of the King? 

3. Make a list of the good things which Clovis did. Do the 

same for the bad things. 



IX 
DESCENDANTS OF CLOVIS 

Outline of Chapter 

Division of the kingdom among Clevis's four sons; their quar- 
rels and wars; separation of East Franks and West Franks; 
story of Fredegonda and Brunhilda. 

•'Feuds," or family wars; payment of "wergeld"; German 
modes of trials; the "ordeals". 

Later history of the "Merovingian" kings; the "do-nothing" 
kings. 

Whex Clovis died, in the year 511, he left four sons. 
Tlie Germans followed the practice of dividing the 
property of a father equally among his 
male children. The Franks now applied of^cfj'^ll 
this rule to the kingdom which Clovis left, 
and divided it just as though it were ordinary prop- 
erty. Each son received a portion of the kingdom, and 
each was independent of the others. This plan turned 
out very badly and caused a great deal of misery. 
None of the kings was ever satisfied with his own 
portion, but each wished to secure for himself the 
whole kingdom which Clovis had ruled. 

So, murders and civil wars became very common 
among these "Merovingian" princes, as they were 
called. Almost all of the descendants of Clovis died a 
violent death ; or else their long hair, — which was their 
pride and the mark of their kingship, — was cut and 
they were forced into monasteries. 

At one time, when one of the sons of Clovis died, his 
two brothers sent a message to their mother Clotilda 
saying : 

71 



72 



THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



"Send us our brother's children, that we may place 
them on the throne." 

When the children were sent, a messenger returned 
to the grandmother, bearing a SAvord and a pair of 
shears, and telling her to choose whether the boys 

should be shorn or 
slain. In despair the 
old queen cried out : 
"I would rather 
know that they 
were dead than 
shorn!" 

Probably she did 
not mean this; but 
the pitiless uncles 
took her at her 
word. Two of the 
boys were cruelly 
slain. The third es- 
caped from their 
hands, and to save 
his life he cut off 
his own hair and 
became a priest. 
After a time, the laud of the Franks was divided into 
two divisions, and the people were called respectively 
East Franks and West Franks. Each land had a 
separate government. The AVest Franks gradually 
came to speak a language which was based on the old 
Latin language which the Romans had introduced into 
Gaul; and, long afterward, this grew into the French 
tongue of to-day. The East Franks, on the other hand, 
kept their old Germanic tongue, which finally de- 




DESCENDANTS OF CLOVIS 
From statues carved at the entrance to a church 



DESCENDANTS OF CLOVIS 73 

veloped into the German language as it is now 
spoken. 

About a hundred years after the time of Clovis, 
two terrible women were queens in these lands. Their 
names were Fredegonda and Brunhilda ; 

Fredegonda 

and their iealousy and hatred of each other and 

'' '' Brunhilda. 

caused them to commit many murders and 
stir up many wars. It is hard to say which of the 
two was the worse, but we feel some pity for Brunhilda 
because of her terrible end. She had ruined her 
grandchildren in order that she might keep the power 
in her own hands, and she was charged with causing 
the death of ten kings of Frankish race. But at last 
she fell into the hands of her enemies; and although 
she was an old woman of eighty years, she was put to 
death by being dragged at the heels of a wild horse. 
Her terrible rival had died some years before. 

In many respects the laws of the Franks, and indeed 
of all the Germans, seem very strange to us. One 
of their strangest customs was that of the 
"feud," as it was called, and the f«""^,^- °' 

' ' family wars. 

"wergeld." Both of these had to do with 
such struggles as the one between Brunhilda and 
Fredegonda. In our day, and also among the Romans, 
if any one injured a man or killed hiin, the man or his 
family could go to law about it, and have the person 
who did the injury punished. But among the old 
Germans the courts of law had very little power, and 
many preferred to right their own wrongs. "When a 
man was killed, his relatives would try to kill the 
slayer. Then the relatives of the slayer would try to 
protect him ; and in this way a little war would arise 
between the two families. This was called a *'feud": 



74 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

and the struggle would go on until the number killed 
on one side equaled the number killed on the other. 

By and by men began to see that this was a poor 
way of settling their diflferences. Then it became the 

practice for the man who did the injury to 
-w^^g^id."^ P^y ^ ^^1^ of money to the one who was 

injured; and the families helped in this, 
just as they had in the feud. AVhen the payment was 
given for the slaying of a person it was styled 
"wergeld" or "man-money." 

After this, the feud was only used when the offender 
could not, or would not, pay the wergeld. Every man, 
—and indeed every part of the body, from a joint of 
the little finger up to the whole man, — came to have 
its price. The wergeld of a Frank w^as twice that of a 
Roman; and the wergeld of a person in the King's 
service was three times that of a simple freeman. 

Another interesting thing about the old Germanic 
law was the way the trials were carried on. Let us 

suppose that a man is accused of stealing. 

German 

methods • \\ c sliould at oucc try to find out whether 

of trials. ' • i i o 

any one had seen him commit the theft ; 
that is, we should examine witnesses, and try to find 
out all the facts in the ease. That was also the Roman 
way of doing things ; but it was not the German way. 

The Germans had several ways of trying cases, the 
most curious of which was the ''ordeal." If they used 

this, they might force the man who was 
^ordeals " accusccl to pluugc his hand into a pot of 

boiling water and pick up some small 
object from the bottom. Then the man's hand was 
wrapped up and sealed ; and if in three days there was 
no mark of scalding, the man was declared innocent. 



DESCENDANTS OF CLOFIS 



75 



In this way they left the decision of the case to God; 
for they thought that he would not permit an innocent 
man to suffer. 

Besides this form of the ordeal, there were also 
others. In one of these the person accused had to 
carry a piece of red-hot iron in his hand for a certain 
distance. In another he was thrown, with hands and 
feet tied, into a running stream. If he floated, he was 
considered guilty ; but if he sank, he was innocent, and 







MFROVINGIAN KING ON AN OX CART 



must at once be pulled out. All of these forms of trial 
seem very absurd to us, but to men of the early Middle 
Ages they seemed perfectly natural; and they 
continued to be used until the thirteenth century. 

In spite of the wickedness of the descendants of 
Clovis, and in spite of the divisions of the kingdom, 
the power of the Franks continued to 

Later 

increase. For about one hundred and Mstoryofthe 

Franks. 

seventy years the Merovingian kings were 

powerful rulers ; then, for about one hundred years. 



76 TEE STOUT OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

they gradually lost power, until they became so 

unimportant that they are called "do-nothing" kings. 

The rich estates which Clovis had left to his 

descendants were now wasted, through the reckless 

grants which the kings had made to their 

nothing" nobles. So poor were the kings that they 

kings. 

could boast of but small estates and a 
scanty income ; and when they wished to go from place 
to place they were forced to travel in an ox-cart, after 
the manner of the peasants. Now they had few 
followers, where before their war-bands had numbered 
hundreds. All this made the kings so weak that the 
nobles no longer obeyed them. The government was 
left more and more to the charge of the kings' minis- 
ters; while the kings themselves were content to wear 
their long flowing hair, and sit upon the throne as 
figureheads. 

The time had come when, indeed, the kings "did 
nothing." They reigned, but they did not rule. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Why was the division of the kingdom among the king's 

sons a bad practice? 

2. Would you call these Franks a "civilized" people? Give 

reasons for your answer. 

3. Do you know of any places where "feuds" are still fought? 

4. Why were "ordeals" not a good way to try cases at law? 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAM- 
MEDANS 

Outline of Chapter 

Condition of the Arabs before Mohammed; changes which came 

in the seventh century. 
Early life of Mohanimod; he preaches a new faith; all Arabia 

accepts it ; the ' ' Koran. ' ' 
Conquests outside of Arabia; the Moors conquer Spain (711); 

they prepare to conquer Gaul. 

While the descendants of Clovis were struggling 
with one another for his kingdom, and while the 
Church M-as gaining in wealth and in power, a danger 
was arising in the East that was to threaten both with 
ruin. 

This danger was caused by the rise of a new reli- 
gion among the Arabs. Arabia is a desert land for 
the most part ; and the people gained their 

, . . , 1 • • , 1 • , , The Arabs 

living by wandering with their camels and before 

Mohammed. 

herds from oasis to oasis, or else by carry- 
ing on trade between India and the West, by means of 
caravans across the dt'serts. The people themselves 
were like grown-up children in many ways. They had 
poetic minds, and impulsive and generous hearts; but 
they were ignorant and superstitious, and often very 
cruel. Up to tiiis time they had never been united 
under one government, nor had they all believed in 
the same religion. Some tribes worshiped the stars of 
heaven, others worshiped "feticlies" of sticks and 
stones, and others believed in gods or demons called 

77 



78 



THE STOSY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



"genii." If you' have read tlie story of Aladdin and 
his wonderful lamp, in the Arabian Nights, you will 
know what the "genii" were like. Arabia is so near 
to Palestine that it will not surprise you to hear that 
the Arabs had also learned something from the religion 
of the Jews, and from the Christians. But until the 
seventh century after Christ, the Arabs remained, in 
spite of this, a rude and idolatrous people, without any 
faith or government which all acknowledged. 




THE CITY OF MECCA 

Tn the seventh century came a change. The Arabs 
then became a united people, under one government, 
and with one religion. And under the influence of 
this religion they came out from their deserts, and 
conquered vast empires to the east and to the west, 
until it seemed as though the whole of the known 
world was to pass into their hands. 

The man who brought about this change was named 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 79 

Mohainmed. He belonged to a powerful tribe among 
the Arabs. But his father and mother had died be- 
fore he was six years of age. He w^as then 
taken care of by his uncle, who was so poor iiie of 

Mohammed. 

that Mohammed was obliged to hire out as 
a shepherd boy, and do work that was usually done by 
slaves. When he was thirteen years old his uncle took 
h^m with a caravan to Damascus and other towms of 
Syria ; and there the boy caught his first glimpses of 
the outside world. When he grew up he became 
manager for a wealthy widow who had many camels 
and sent out many caravans ; and at last he won her 
love and respect, and she became his wife. When 
Mohammed established his new religion she became his 
first convert, and to the day of her death she was his 
most faithfu^|iriend and follower. 

]\Iohamined nii|l a dreamy and imaginative nature, 
and when he liacT become a man he thought much 
about religion. Every year he would go alone into 
the mountains near his home, and spend a month in 
fasting and prayer. At times he fell into a trance, and 
when he was restored he would tell of wonderful 
visions that his soul had seen while his body lay 
motionless on the earth. 

When Mohammed was forty years old, a vision came 
to him of a mighty figure that called him by name and 
held an open book before him, saving, 

He preaches 

"Read!" Mohammed believed that this anew 

faith. 

was the angel Gabriel, who came to him 

that he might establish a new religion, whose 

watchword should be: 

"There is but one God, and Mohammed is his 
Prophet!" \ -~^^- 



80 



TBE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



When he began to preach the new faitli, ^lohamraed 
at first found few converts. At the end of three years 
he had only forty followers. His teachings angered 
those who had charge of the idols of the old religions, 
and Mohammed was obliged at last to flee from the 
holy city of ]\Iccca. This Avas in the year 622 a.d., and 
to this day the followers of ]\Ioliammed count time 
from this date, as we do from the birth of Christ. 




a ' ido ' ♦Aq ' *do 



MAP SHOWING ^[OIIA^IMKPAN COXQincSTS 

After this Mohammed gained followers more rapidly, 
and he began to preach that the new religion must ])e 

spread by the sword. AVarriors now came 
aicept's^u? flocking into his camp from all directions. 

Within ten years after the flight from 
]\Iecca, all the tribes of Arabia had become his fol- 
lowers, and the idols had everywhere been broken to 
pieces. Then the Mohammedans turned to other 
nations, and everywhere they demanded that the 
people should believe in Mohammed, or pay tribute. 
If these demands were refused, they were put to death. 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 81 

Mohammed could neither read nor write, but his 
sayings "were written down by his companions. In this 
way a whole chestful of the sayings of the 

The 

Prophet was preserved, written on scraps Mohammedan 
of paper or parchment, or dried palm 
leaves, and even on tlie l)road, flat shoulder-bones of 
sheep. After Mohammed's death (in 632) these say- 
ings were gathered together and formed into a book ; 
in this way arose the "Koran," which is the bible of 
the Mohammedans. 

Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jesus are all recognized 
as prophets in the Koran ; but Mohammed is regarded 
as the latest and greatest of all. The Koran teaches 
that those who believe in Mohammed, and live just 
lives, shall enter Paradise when they die. They will 
there dwell in beautiful gardens, Avhere they shall 
never be burned by the rays of the sun, nor chilled by 
wintry winds ; and there under flowering trees they 
shall recline forever, clad in silks and brocades, and 
fed by delicious fruits, which beautiful black-eyed 
maidens bring to them. To win Paradise the Moham- 
medan must follow certain rules. Five times a day he 
must pray with his face turned in the direction of the 
holy city Mecca ; he must not gamble or drink wine ; 
and during the holy month, wlien Mohammed fasted, 
he too must fast and pray. But the surest way to 
gain Paradise, and all its joys, was to die in battle 
fighting for the ^lohammodan faith. This teaching 
helps to explain why the Christians have always found 
the Mohammedans such fierce and reckless fighters. 

"Within a lumdred years after the death of IMoham- 
med bis followers liad won an empire which stretched 
from the Indus river, in Asia, to the Red Sea, and from 



82 TEE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. All of Southwest- 
ern Asia, and all of Northern Africa, were under their 
rule; and they were preparing to add 
Mohammedan Spain also, and perhaps all Europe, to the 
conques s. jj^^fig -^yhere the "call to prayer" was 
chanted. 

In the year 711 A.u., a Mohammedan general named 

Tarik led tlie first army of Moors and Arabs across 

from Africa to Spain. Near wliere he 

The Moors '■ 

Conquer landed was a huge mountain of rock on 

Spain (711). _ ° 

Avhich lie built a fortress or castle ; and 
from his name it is still called "Gibel-Tarik," or 
Gibraltar, the mountain of Tarik. 

Spain at this time was ruled by the West-Goths; 
were not able to resist the fierce Moors. Near a little 
but they were weakened by cpiarrels and idleness, and 
river in Southern Spain the great battle was fought. 
For seven days the Christian Goths, under their King, 
Rodrigo, fought against the Mohammedan army ; but 
still the battle Avas undecided. On the eighth day the 
Christians fled from the field, and Spain was left in the 
hands of the ^Mohammedans. 

Long after that day an old Spanish poet sang of that 
battle in Avords like these : 

The hosts of Don Eodrigo were scattered in dismay, 
When lost Avas the eightli battle, nor heart nor hope had they; 
He, when he saw that field was lost, and all his hope was flown, 
He turned him from his flying host, and took liis way alone. 

All stained and strewed with dust and blood, like to some 

smouldering brand 
Plucked from the flame, Eodrigo showed; his sword was in 

his hand. 
But it was hacked into a saw of dark and purple tint: 
His jeweled mail had many a flaw, his helmet many a dint. 



MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 83 

He climbed into a hill-top, the highest he could see, 
Thence all about of that wide rout his last long look took he, 
He saw his royal banners, where they lay drenched and torn, 
He heard the cry of victory, the Arab's shout of scorn. 

He looked for the brave captains that led the hosts of Spain, 
But all were fled except the dead, and who could count the 

slain ? 
Where'er his eye could wander, all bloody was the plain. 
And while thus he said, the tears he shed ran down his cheeks 
like rain: 

"Last night I was the King of Spain — to-day no king am I; 
Last night fair castles held my train — to-night where shall 

I lie? 
Last night a hundred pages did serve me on the knee — 
To-night not one I call my own — not one pertains to me." 

This battle destroyed the power of the West-Goths. 
It also marks the beginning of the rule of the Moors 
in Spain, Avhich was to last until the time of Queen 
Isabella and Columbus. 

The ease with which the Moors conquered Spain 
made them think it would be an easy thing to conquer 
Gaul also. So within a few years we find 

, , . . • , 1 -r. , "^^^y prepare 

their armies crossing the Fyrenees to carry to conquer 

Gaul. 

war into that land. But here they met the 

Franks, and that people was not so easy to overcome 

as the Goths had been. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Compare the Arabs, before Mohammed, with the Franks of 

that time. 

2. Eead a brief account of Mohammed *s life. 

3. Do you think Mohammed really believed in the religion 

which he preached? Why do you think so? 

4. Which was the larger, the ]\Iohammedan Empire as it was 

after 711, or the Roman Empire before 375? Which took 
the longer time to build up? 



XI 
THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE 

Outline of Chapter 

Rise of the Frankish "Mayors of the Palace"; Charles Martel 
becomes Mayor (714); he defeats the Moors at Tours (732). 

The sons of Cliarles Martel; Pepin "the Short" sets aside the 
last Merovingian king, and becomes King of the Franks 
(751). 

You have already seen how Clovis built up a strong 

kingdom in Gaul and Germany ; and then how the 

power slipped away from the hands of his 

Tll6 

do-nothing descoudants, until they became mere 

kings. 

"do-nothing" kings. An old Frankish 
writer says: "The kings had only the name, and 
nothing save means for meat and drink. They dwelt 
in a country house all the year, until the middle of 
May. Then they came forth to greet the people and 
be greeted by them, and to receive their gifts. After 
that they returned to their dwelling, where they 
remained until the next year." 

The real power was now in the hands of great nobles 
who acted as the King's ministers. The chief of these 

was called the "Mayor of the Palace"; and 

The Mayors , . ,*,-!.»■ • , 

of the at the time when the Moors came into 

Spain this office Avas handed down from 

father to son in a powerful family, which possessed 

rich estates in the Rhine valley, and could command a 

multitude of warlike followers. 

Three years after the Moors had crossed over into 

84 



TEE MAYOnS OF TEE PALACE 



85 



Spain, the old Mayor of the Palace died, and the office 
passed to his son Charles. This was a serious time 
for the kingdom of the Franks. Civil wars 

° 111 Charles Martel 

now broke out anew among the nobles; becomes Mayor 

. (714). 

the Saxons from Germany broke into the 
kingdom from the north ; and the Moors were pressing 
up from Spain into the very heart of France. The 
young Mayor of the Palace, however, proved equal to 
the occasion. The civil wars were brought to an end, 




CHARLES M ARTEL DEFEATS THE MOORS 

and all the Prankish lands were brought under his 
rule. The heathen Saxons were driven back to their 
own country. Then, gathering an army from the 
whole kingdom, Charles marched, in the year 732, into 
Southern France to meet the Moors. 

He found their army near the city of Tours, laden 
with the booty which they had taken. The „ , . ^ 

XlQ (I6I G&lS 

]\[oors expected another victory as great the Moors at 

^ Tours (732). 

as the one which had given them Spain; 

but they found their match in Charles and his 



86 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Franks. All day long the battle raged. Twenty times 
the light-armed Moors, on their fleet horses, dashed 
into the ranks of the heavy-armed Franks; but each 
time Charles and his men stood firm, like a wall, and 
the enemy had to retreat. At last the Moors gave up 
the attempt; and when day dawned next morning the 
Franks found that they had slipped off in the night, 
leaving behind them their tents and all their rich 
booty. 

This battle forever put an end to the conquests of 
the Moors in France. It was this battle also, perhaps, 
that gave Charles his second name, ''Martel," or "the 
Hammer"; for, as an old writer tells us, ''like a 
hammer breaks and dashes to pieces iron and steel, so 
Charles broke and dashed to pieces his enemies." 

At all events, the fame which Charles Martel won by 

his actions, and the ability wliich he showed as a ruler, 

enabled him to leave his power to his two 

Sons of 1 1 T T . • 1 

Charles SOUS whcu hc died. Agam there was a war 

M^rtel. 

between the Mayors of the Palace and the 
nobles who ruled over portions of the kingdom, but 
again the Mayors of the Palace won. Then, when quiet 
was restored once more, the elder of the two sons of 
Charles gave over his power to his brother Pepin, and 
entered a monastery, in order that he might spend the 
rest of his years in the holy life of a monk. 

This left Pepin (who was called "Pepin the Short") 
as tlie sole IMayor of the Palace. There was still a 
^lerovingian prince who sat on the throne, but he was 
a "do-nothing" King, as so many had been before him ; 
and he only said the words that he was told, and did 
the things that were given him to do. 

Of course, this could not go on forever. Every one 



THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE 



87 



was getting tired of it ; and at last Pepin felt that tlie- 
time had come when he might safely take the title 
of King. First, messengers were sent to 

Pepin becomes 

the Pope to ask his opinion. The Pope King of the 

^ ^ Franks (751). 

was now eager to get the aid of the Franks 

against the Lombards in Italy ; so he answered in the 

way that he knew Avould please Pepin. 




Till': MKR(»VIN(;i.\N KINC DKrOSEl) 

"It is better," he said, "to give the title King to the 
person who actually has the power." 

Then the weak ^Merovingian King was deposed. His 
long hair was cut, he was forced to become a monk, 
and was shut out of sight in a monastery. Pepin the 
Short was then anointed with the sacred oil, and was 
crowned King in his place. 

As long as Pepin lived, he ruled as a strong and just 
King. AVhen he died, the crown went to his children, 



gg THE STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

and after them to his children's children. In this way 
the crown of the Franks continued in the family of 
Pepin for more than two hundred years. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Why did tho Merovingian kings lose power, and the Mayors 

of the Palace gain it? 

2. What difference might it have made to history if the 

Mohammedan Moors had been victorions at Tours, instead 
of the Ciiristian Franks? 

3. Was it right that the Merovingian King should be deposed, 

and Pepin "the Short" take his place? Give your reasons. 

4. Why was the Pope appealed to by Pepin when he wanted to 

take the crown? 



XII 
CHARLEMAGNE 

Outline of Chapter 

Importance of Charlemagne's reign; dates when he ruled (768- 
814); what he did for the Franks. 

Number of his wars; their objects; their results. 

War with the Saxons; its long duration; massacre of the rebels; 
Widukind's resistance; end of the war. 

War with the Lombards; why Charlemagne attacked them; 
their kingdom overthrown, and Charlemagne becomes King 
of Italy (77-i). 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Kome (800); relations between 
Pope and Emperor; nature of Cliarlemagne 's empire; impor- 
tance of the revival of the Empire in the West; how Charle- 
magne's emjiire was governed. 

What Charlemagne did for education; the Palace School; Charle- 
magne and the schoolboys. 

Personal appearance and dress of Charlemagne. 

Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, became King 
of the Franks when his father Pepin died. He was the 
gre atest riilei^ of_his_Jime ; and for hun- chariemagne, 
dreds of years after his death his influence J^'"^v°^ ,, 

»" the Franks 

continued to be felt in Western Europe, ees-su). 
If Columbus had never been born, America would have 
been discovered just the same. But if Charlemagne had 
never been King of the Franks, and made himself Em- 
peror of the Holy Roman Empire, — as we shall see that 
he did, — the whole history of the ^Middle Ages would 
have been very different from what it actually was. 

At first Charlemagne's brother ruled with him as 
King; but within three years the brother died, and 
then Charlemagne ruled as sole King of the Franks. 
He owed the power which he held largely to his father, 

89 



90 TEE STOHY OF TUE MIDDLE AGES 

and to his grandfather Charles Martel; but Charle- 
magne used this power wisely and Avell, and greatly 
increased it. He put down the rebellions of the peoples 
who rose against the rule of the Franks; he defended 
the land against the ]\Ioliaraniedans of Spain and the 
heathen Germans of the north; be conquered new 
lands and new peoples. In addition, he set up an 
improved system of government ; and he did all that 
he could to encourage learning and make his people 
more civilized than they had been before. 

^Vhen w'e read of all the things that Charlemagne 
did, we wonder that he was able to do so much. In 

the forty-six years that he was King he 
wars^^"*^^"^^ sent out more than fifty expeditions against 

different enemies ; and in more than half 
of these he took the command himself. Charlemagne's 
wars, liowever, were not simply for plunder, or for 
more laud, as so many of the earlier wars of the 
Franks had been. They were fought either to keep 
down the peoples wlioni the Franks liad already con- 
quered, or else to keep out new peoples who were 
seeking to conquer the Franks. In both these objects 
Charlemagne was successful. The result of his wars 
Avas tliat almost all of those lands Avhich had formerly 
been under the • Emperors of the West, were now^ 
brought under the rule of the King of the Franks : and 
the peoples who lived in these lands, both the old 
inhabitants and the German new-comers, were allowed 
peaceably to live together and work out their OAvn 
destiny. 

The most stubl)orn enemy that Charlemagne had to 
fight was the Saxons. A portion of this people had 
settled in the island of Britain about three hundred 



CHABLEMAGNE 91 

years earlier, but many Saxon tribes still dwelt in the 
northern part of Germany. In Charlemagne's time 
they still worshiped Woden and Thor. and ^^ ^j^^ 
lived in mii(;h the same way that the Ger- *^® saxons. 
mans had done before the great migrations. It was 
part of Charlemagne's plan to make himself ruler of 
all the German nations; besides, there were constant 
quarrels along the border between the Saxons and the 
Franks. The result was that Avar was declared, and 
Charlemagne started out to conquer, to Christianize, 
and to civilize these heathen kinsmen. But it was a 
hard task; and the war lasted many years before it 
was ended. Again and again the Franks would march 
into the Saxon lands in summer and conquer the Saxon 
villages ; but as soon as they withdrew for the winter 
the young warriors of the Saxons would come out from 
the swamps and forests, to which they had retreated, 
and next year the work would liave to be done over 
again. 

After this had occurred several times, Charlemagne 
determined to make a terrible example. Forty-live 
liundredj)fjthe- Saxon warriQrajVYliQ_had rebelled and 
been captured were put to death by his orders, all in 
one day. This dreadful massacre was the worst thing 
that Charlemagne ever did ; and it did not even succeed 
in terrifying the Saxons. Instead, it led to the hardest 
and bloodiest war of all, in which a chief named 
Widukiud led on his countrymen to take vengeance 
for their murdered relatives and friends. 

In the end Charlemagne and his Franks proved too 
strong for the Saxons. Widukind, at Irfst, ^j^^ saxons 
was obliged to surrender and be baptized, conquered, 
with all his followers. After that the resistance of the 



92 TEE STOET OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Saxons died away ; and Charlemagne 's treatment of 
the land was so wise that it became one of the strongest 
and most important parts of the kingdom. 

Charlemagne also fought a number of times against 

the Arabs in Spain. He not only prevented them from 

settling in Southern France, as they had 

War in ^^led to do in the time of Charles Martel ; 

Spain, ' 

but he won from them a strip of th<-ir own 
country south of the Pyrenees ^Mountains. In one of 
these wars, the rearguard of Charlemagne's army was 
cut off and slain by the mountain tril)es in the narrow 
pass of Koncesvalles. The leader of the Franks was 
Roland, while the leader of tiie enemy was called 
Bernardo. 

Long after that day, strange stories grew up; and 
poets sang of tlie brave deeds of Roland, and of the 

mighty blasts which he gave on his 
RotI^d°^ hunting-horn, to warn Charlemagne of the 

danger to his army. Three blasts he l)lew. 
each so loud and terrible that the birds fell dead from 
the trees, and the enemy drew back in alarm. Charle- 
magne, many miles away, heard the call, and hastened 
to the rescue, but he came too late. An old song says: 

The day of Roncesvalles was a dismal day for you, 

Ye men of France, for there the lance of King Charles was 

broke in two; 
Ye well may curse that rueful field, for many a noble peer 
In fray or fight the dust did bite beneath Bernardo's spear. 

In most of his wars Charlemagne was successful, 
and the stories about him told rather of his glory and 
his might than of his defeats. 

One of his most important conquests was that of the 



CHARLEMAGNE 93 

Lombar dSj in Northern Italy . Nearly a century after- 
ward, an old monk wrote the story of this war as he 
had heard it from his father. Desiderius. 
the King of the Lombards, had offended ^e^JmLds. 
the Pope, and the Pope appealed to Charle- 
magne for aid. AVhen Cliark'iuagne marched his army 
over the Alps into Italy, the Lombard King shut him- 
self up in his capital, Pavia. There he had with liim, 
according to the story, one of Charlemagne's nobles 
named Otker, who had offended the dread King and 
fled from him. 

"Now when they heard of the approach of the 
terrible Charles," writes this old monk, "they climbed 
up into a high tower, whence they could 
see in all directions. AVhen the advance mcnks 
guard appeared, Desiderius said to Otker : 
'Is Charles with this great army, do you think?' And 
he answered: 'Not yet.' "When he saw the main army, 
gathered from the whole broad empire, Desiderius said 
Avith confidence: 'Surely the victorious Charles is Avith 
these troops.' But Otker answered: 'Not yet, not yet.' 

"Then Desidei'ius began to ])e troubled, and said: 
'What shall we do if still iiioic come with him ?' Otker 
answered: 'You will soon see how he will come; but 
what will become of us, I know not.' And, behold, 
while they were speaking, appeared the servants of 
Charles's household, a never-resting multitude. 'That 
is Charles,' said the terrified Desiderius. But Otker 
said: 'Not yet, not yet.' Then appeared the bishops 
and tlie ab])ots, and the chaplains with their com- 
panions. AYhen he beheld these the Lombard prince, 
dazed witli fear and longing for death, stammered out 
these words: 'Lc^t us go down and hide in the earth 



94 



TEE SrORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



before the wrath of so terril)le an enemy ! ' But Otker, 
who in better times had known well the power and the 
arms of the great Charles, answered: 'When yoa see 
a harvest of steel Avaving in the fields, and the rivers 
dashing steel-blaek waves against the city walls, then 
you may believe Charles is coming. ' 



-v/^'V^-ir^^—V^^'' '?■--, rx.!'"^— — 




R(fYAL rAl.At'K •)!•' rilARI.KMAONE'S TIME 



"Seareely had he spoken Avhen there appeared in the 
north and west a dark cloud, as it were, which wrapped 

the clear day in most dreadful shadow, 
^f'ch^i"^ ^^"t as it grew nearer, there flashed upon 

the besieged from the gleaming weapons 
a day that was more terrible for them than any night. 
Then they saw him,— Charles,— the man of steel; his 
arms covered with plates of steel, his iron breast and 
his broad shoulders protected by steel armor. His left 
hand carried aloft the iron lance, for his right was 



CHAELEMAGNE 95 

always ready for the victorious sword. His thighs, 
which others leave uncovered iu order more easily to 
mount their horses, were covered on the outside with 
iron scales. The leg-pieces of steel were common to 
the whole army. His shield was all of steel, and his 
horse was iron in color and in spirit. 

"This armor all who rode before him, by his side, 
or who followed him,— in fact, the whole army,— had 
tried to huitate as closely as possible. Steel filled the 
fields and roads. The rays of the sup were reflected 
from gleaming steel. The people, paralyzed by fear, 
did homage to the bristling steel ; the fear of the steel 
pierced down deep into the earth. 'Alas, the steel!' 
'Alas, the steel!' cried the inhabitants confusedly. The 
mighty walls trembled before the steel, and the courage 
of youths fled before the steel of the aged. 

"And all this, which I have told with all too many 
words, the truthful seer Other saw with one swift look, 
and said to Desiderius: 'There you have Charles, whom 
you have so long desired!' And witli these words he 
fell to the ground like one dead." 

In this war Charlemagne was completely victorious. 
Desiderius ceased to be King of the Lombards, and 
Charlemagne became King in his place. ^^^,^^^^^^ 
For centuries after that Charlemagne's t^ecomes Kmg 
successors continued to wear "the iron 
crown of Italy," which the great King of the Franks 
had won from Desiderius. 

One of the results of the conquest of the Lombards 

was that Charlemagne was brought into closer rela- 

• tions with the Pope. The Emperor of the East still 

claimed to rule over Italy ; but his rule was feeble, and 

only a small part of the peninsula was now in the 



96 TEE STOMY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

hands of his officers. The real power in Italy had 
passed into the hands of the King of the Franks; and 
the question now was, whether the Pope should be 
under his rule as he had been under that of the Eastern 
Emperors. 

Two things made this question harder to decide. 
One was that Charlemagne, following the example of 
his father Pepin, had given to the Pope a number of 
the cities and villages which he had conquered in 
Italy. The other was that the Pope, on Christmas day 
of the year 800, placed a crown on Charlemagne's head 
as he knelt in prayer in St. Peter's church at Rome, 
and proclaimed him Emperor. 

Charlemagne had gone to Rome to aid the Pope 
against rebellious Romans, and remained for the cele- 
chariemagne bratiou of Christmas. On that day, as 
EmiMol- Charlemagne's secretary tells us, "the 
(800). King went to mass at St. Peter's, and as he 

knelt in prayer before the altar, the Pope set a crown 
upon his head. Then the Roman people cried aloud: 
'Long life and victory to the mighty Charles, the great 
and peaceful Emperor of the Romans, who is crowned 
of God!' " He adds that later Charlemagne declared 
"that he would not have set foot in the church that 
day, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have 
foreseen the design of the Pope." Nevertheless Charle- 
magne accepted the new title, and prized it higher than 
his old title of King. 

When Charlemagne gave those cities and villages to 

the Pope, did it mean that he gave up the right to rule 

Relations of thorc, and turned the power over to the 

Emperor. Popc, SO that the latter became the Prince 

in these places? And when the Pope crowned Charle- 



CHAELEMAGNE 97 

magne as Emperor, did that mean that the Pope 
could set up and pull down emperors whenever he 
pleased ? 

These are very hard questions to answer, but they 
are very important questions to understand. Upon 
the answers given to tliem would depend the decision 
whether the Pope was above the Emperor, or the 
Emperor above the Pope ; and this was a question 
about which men fought for iiundreds of years. 

We may also ask, AVhat was this Empire of which 
Charlemagne became Emperor on that Cliristinas 
morning ? 

The name which men later gave to it is "the Holy 
Roman Empire j)f the German Nation." They thought 
of it as a revival of the old Roman Empire 
of the West, which had come to an end chariemagnes 
more than three hundred years before. 
They called it the Holy Roman Empire, to show how 
great a part the Church, and especially the Pope, 
played in it ; and they added the words, of ike German 
Xation, because it was the new and vigorous peoples 
who had come from the North who now supplied its 
strength. Though Charlemagne as Emperor ruled only 
over the peoples who had obeyed him as King, still men 
felt that his position now was higher, and his authority 
greater, than it had been before. For now his power 
was linked with the majestic history of Rome, and was 
given a more solemn sanction by the Church. 

In this way, the crowning of Charlemagne as Em- 
peror was an event of very great importance. For a 
thousand years after that day, the office of importance of 

,, • 1 Tir • T • revival of 

hmperor in the \\ est continued to exist; the Empire, 
and for a good part of this time it was one of the 



98 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

most powerful means of holding the peoples of West- 
ern Europe together in one family of nations, and pre- 
venting them from growing wholly unlike and hostile 
to one another. 

To govern the wide territories which were under his 

rule, Charlemagne kept up the "counts" or local rulers 

that he found established in different parts 

Government fi-Ti- y-\ ■, • ■, 

of the or his hmpire. Over these he set higher 

Empire. 

rulers, called Missi or "messengers," who 
were to travel about the country, seeing everything 
and reporting everything to the King. 

Twice a year, in the spring and in the autumn, the 
nobles of the land with their followers were called to- 
gether to consult with him, and assist him in making 
laws for the kingdom. These assemblies would con- 
tinue for several days, according to the importance of 
the business. While they lasted, the nobles would come 
and go from the King's palace, proposing laws to their 
followers, and carrying back their assent. The King's 
will decided everything ; the nobles advised ; their fol- 
lowers merely assented to what was proposed. 

If the weather was fine, the assembly met in the open 
air; but if it was not, then the meetings took place in 
churches and other buildings. The King, meanwhile, 
was busy receiving presents, talking with the most im- 
portant men, especially those who dwelt at a distance 
from his court, and hearing what his nobles and officials 
had to report to him concerning any part of the king- 
dom. This last (^harlemagne considered very impor- 
tant. As an old writer says : 

"The King wished to know whether, in any part or 
any corner of the kingdom, the people murmured or 
were troubled, and Avhat was the cause of their troubles. 



CHARLEMAGNE 



99 




CHARLEMAGNE 

This shows him as after ages thought of him. The sword, crown, and robes 
are the ones used by later emperors. 



100 'J^B.E STOEy OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Also he wished to knoAv if any of the conquered peoples 
thought of rebelling, or if any of those who were still 
independent threatened the kingdom with an attack. 
And upon all these matters, wherever a danger or a 
disturbance arose, his chief questions were concerned 
with its motives or its cause," 

Besides being a great warrior and a great ruler, 

Charlemagne was also a great friend of learning and 

education. He loved to gather about him 

sc^hoo^.*'*^* learned men from all parts of the world. 
In this "Palace School," as it was called, 
the King and his wise men discussed learned questions. 
Charlemagne himself learned to read only after he was 
a grown man ; and in spite of all his efforts he never 
succeeded in learning to write. This made him all the 
more anxious that the bright lads of his kingdom 
should have the advantages which he lacked. So he 
founded schools in the monasteries and bishoprics; in 
this way he hoped to get learned men for offices in the 
Church and State. The rude fighting men of that day, 
however, looked upon learning with contempt ; and 
many noble youths in the schools neglected their books 
for hawking and warlike exercises. 

The old monk who tells us how Charles overcame 
King Desiderius, also tells us of the p]mperor's wrath 

„, , when he found the bovs of one school going 

Charlemagne . . ' o o 

and the on in this fashion. The bovs of low and 

schoolboys. 

middle station had been faithful ; and when 
they presented their compositions and poems to the 
King, he said : 

"]\Iany thanks, my sons, that you have taken such 
pains to carry out my orders to the best of your ability. 
Try now to do better still, and I will give you as reward 



CHARLEMAGNE 



101 



splendid bishoprics, and make you rulers over monas- 
teries, and you shall be highly honored in my sight." 

But to the high-born boys, who had played while the 
others worked, he cried out in wrath : 

"You sons of princes, you pretty and dainty little 
gentlemen, who count upon your birth and your 
wealth ! You have 
d i s r e g a rded my 
orders and your 
own reputations; 
you have neglected 
your studies and 
spent your time iu 
games and idleness, 
or in foolish occu- 
pations ! I care lit- 
tle for your noble 
birth, and your 
pretty looks, though 
others think them 
so fine ! And 1 e t 
me promise you 
this : if you do not 
make haste to re- 
cover what you 
have lost by your 
neglect, you will never get any favors from Charles!" 

In many other ways, besides those which we have 
mentioned, Charlemagne did a great work for the 
peoples over whom he ruled, and laid the foundations 
on which the ages that came after builded. In the 
troubled times that followed his death much of his 
work seemed to be swept away ; but this was only in 




STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

This shows CharlemnKne as he really looked. 

Notice that he had no beard. 



102 1^^ STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

seeming, for the most important parts of it still 
live in the governments and civilization of the world. 
Before taking leave of this great King, perhaps you 
would like to know what he looked like, and how he 
Personal Hved. One of the learned men of his court 
chiriemag*ne°^ '^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ dcscription of him. "He 
was tall and stoutly built," he says, "his 
height being just seven times the length of his own foot. 
His head was round, his eyes large and lively, his nose 
somewhat above tlie common size, and his expression 
bright and cheerful. Whether he stood or sat. his form 
was full of dignity; for the good proportion and grace 
of his body prevented the observer from noticing that 
his neck was rather short and his person rather too 
lleshy, " He was very active, this same writer tells 
us, and delighted in riding and hunting, and was skilled 
in swimming. It was, indeed, because of its natural 
warm baths that he made his favorite residence and 
capital at Aachen (the French Aix-la-Chapelle). He 
always wore tiie Frankish dress; but on days of state 
he added to this an embroidered cloak and jewelled 
crown, and carried a sword with a jewelled hilt. The 
name Charlemagne. l)y whicli Ave know him, is French ; 
but the King himself, in speech, dress, and habits, was 
a thoroughly German king, and ruled over a thoroughly 
German people. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Was it a good thing for the Saxons to be conquered by 

Charlemagne? Why? 

2. Read ' ' The Poet 's Tale ' ' in Longfellow 's ' ' Tales of a Way- 

side Inn" (about Charlemagne's war with Desiderius). 
:'.. What made Charlemagne Emperor? Was the position given 

him by the Pope, or had he won it by his victories? 
4. Imagine yourself a pupil in one of Charlemagne's schools, 

and describe his visit to it. 



CHAELEMAGNE 



103 




XIII 
DESCENDANTS OF CHARLEMAGNE 

Outline of Chapter 

Weak rule of Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious. 

Battle of Fontenay; division of the Frankish Empire among his 

three sons (843); new barbarian attacks; decline of the 

Frankish power. 
The great landowners build castles as centers of defence. 

Upon the death of Charlemagne, his Empire passed 
to his son, Louis. This ruler is sometimes called "Louis 
the Pious," because he was so friendly to 
pi'^us * the Church ; and sometimes ' ' Louis the 
(8U-84 . Good-natured," because he was so easy- 
going and allowed himself to be guided by his wife and 
his favorites. Under his weak rule the Empire lost 
much of the strength that it had possessed under 
Charlemagne. 

After Louis's death the Empire was still further 
weakened. His sons had begun fighting for the king- 
dom even while their father lived. AVhen 
Fontenay he was gouc they fought a great battle, in 
which troops from all the Frankish lands 
took part. The old writers describe this as a terrible 
struggle, — more terrible than any since Attila and his 
Huns were driven back by the Romans and the Goths, 
or the Moors were defeated by Charles Martel. Those 
battles had been fought by Christians against peoples 
who wore not Christians; but now Christians fought 
against Christians, Franks against Franks. 

"May the day of that battle bo accursed!" wrote a 

104 



DESCENDANTS OF CHABLEMAGNE 



105 



writer who himself took part in the struggle. ' ' May it 
never more be counted among the days of the year, but 
be wiped out from all remembrance! May that night 
also be accursed, — that ter- 
rible niglit in which so many 
brave and skillful warriors 
met their deaths ! Never was 
there a worse slaughter ! The 
garments of the dead whit- 
ened the whole field." 

As a result of this battle, 
the three sons of Loviis 
agreed to divide the king- 
dom among them. (1) 
Charles, the youngest son, 
got the western part, and 
this in course of time grew 
into the kingdom of France. 
(2) Ludwig, the second son, 
got the land lying east and 
north of the Rhine river and 
Alps mountains ; and this 
region in time became the 
kingdom of Germany. (3) 
Lothair, the eldest son, got 
Italy, and a long narrow 
strip which lay between 

Charles's portion on the west and Ludwig 's portion 
on the east : and with it he received the title 

Frankish 

of Emperor. This ''middle strip" was long Empire 

^ 1- o divided (843). 

and awkwardly shaped, and there was so 

little to bind the people together that it never grew into 

a permanent kingdom. Before many years had gone by, 




LOTH AIR 
Eldest son of Louis the Pious. 



106 TUE SrOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

it passed into the hands of the rulers of France and of 
Germany, and the only thing that remained to show its 
former rule was the name "Lotharingia" or ''Lor- 
raine," which is still given to the northern part of it. 

This division of the kingdom tended, of course, to 

make the Frankish poAver weaker. Other things, too, 

contributed to this end. The Carolingian 

Decline of . / i i i e r^•^ ^ 

Frankish princcs (as the descendants oi Charles are 

power. 

called) were not nearly as strong rulers as 
their great forefather had l)een, and besides they con- 
tinued the practice of dividing the kingdoms among 
all the sons whenever a king died. So the kingdoms 
grew ever smaller and weaker. 

New enemies, moreover, now arose to trouble the 

land, and make the task of governing it more difficult. 

The ]\Ioors of Spain and Africa were going 

New attacks f.^^. j^j^j^ jjjy heart of Fraucc and Italy in 

from without. •' 

their search for plunder and slaves. On the 
north and west tieets of Viking ships, laden with fierce 
Northmen from Denmark and Norway, were landing 
upon the coast, or ascending in their light vessels far 
up the rivers, plundering, killing, and burning. And 
from the east the Hungarians — a new race, of close kin 
to the old Huns — were now advancing year after year 
up the Danube valley, into Germany, into Italy, into 
France, carrying everywhere terror and dismay. 

Since the kings of this period were too weak to pro- 
tect the land against attack, the people were obliged 

to look after their own defence. The result 
Rise of ^yj^g ihat rich and powerful landowners be- 

castles. ^ 

gan to build great, gloomy towers and 
castles as a protection against these raids. In course 
of time every lofty hill-top, every cliff, every island in 



DESCENDANTS OF CHAELEMAGNE 



107 






the great rivers, came to have a castle, where the lord 
and his followers might find protection against their 
enemies. There was now no power in the state either 
to protect or to pun- 
ish its subjects ; so 
these lords not only 
used their castles as 
a defence against the 
Hungarians and 
other enemies, but 
often themselves op- 
pressed their neigh- 
bors. From their 
strongholds they 
would sally forth to 
misuse the peasants 
of the country 
around, or to plun- 
der merchants trav- 
eling from town to 
town. 

Everything w a s 
falling into confusion; and it seemed as if the time 
told of in the Bible, when "every man did that which 
seemed good in his own eyes," had again come upon 
earth. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Compare the history of Charlemagne's descendants with 

that of the descendants of Clovis. 

2. What change of language among the East Franks paved the 

way for the separation of France from Germany? (See 
ch. ix). 

3. Name three things which brought about the decline of the 

Frankish power under the Carolingians. 

4. "Why is there no need now for private persons to build 

castles as places of defence? 




chaiu.es 

Youngpst son of Louis the Pious. 



108 ^^-E STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 




p, 3 



X 3 



XIV 
RISE OF FEUDALISM 

Outline of Chapter 

Why men becanio ''vassals" of a lonl; the process of "com- 
mendation"; "homage" and "fealty"; meaning of "bene- 
fice " or " fief ' '. 

What the vassals gained from feudalism; what the lord gained; 
lords, overlorils, and "serfs". 

Rights of government possessed by the lords; growth of feudal- 
ism; its results; the Feudal Age. 

There seemed to be only one remedy, for the ordinary 
man, against such evils as those described in the last 
chapter. This was to give up his inde- 
pendence, and get the lord of some castle f^T°^s&&Is.^ 
to agree to protect him against all other 
enemies. That, in fact, is just wliat we find going on in 
this period. Men everywhere were giving up their 
independence, and becoming the dependents of some 
great num. who took them un(h'r his protection. 

When a freeman wislied to "commend himself," as 
it was called, to tlie protection of a lord, he Avent down 
on his knees b(^fore him, put Iiis hands between the 
hands of the lord, and swore to be "his man'' — that is, 
to serve him. Then the lord raised his "vassal," as 
the man was thenceforth called, and gave him the kiss 
of peace.. This was called "doing homage" to the lord. 
Next the vassal swore to lie faithful to his lord in all 
things; this was the "oath of fealty." 

If the nuiii had land in his own right, he usually gave 
it up to the lord, and th(> loi-d then gave him back the 

109 



110 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

use of it. If he had no land before, the lord granted him 

the use of some of his own land ; and a lance, or a twig, 

was given him at the time he did homage, 

The benefice jjj gjgQ Qf n^jg Thenceforth the lord was 

or fief. ° 

the real owner of the land, but the vassal 
had the use of it till his death. When he died, his son 
would do homage and swear fealty to the lord, and then 
he would be given the land his father held. Such a 
piece of land was called a "benefice," or a "fief," and 
the name which is given to the whole system w^as "feu- 
dalism," or the "feudal system." 

As a result of this system the ordinary freemen 
gained the protection which they so much needed and 
the state could no longer furnish. Thenceforth they 
had a place of refuge, in the lord's castle, to which they 
could flee when robber bands appeared ; and they also 
had a pow^erful protector to defend them against the 
attacks of other lords. 

"But," you may ask, "what good w^as all this to the 

lord of the castle? Why was he willing to admit these 

men to become his vassals, and even grant 

Military them part of his own lands as benefices?" 

service. '■ 

That is a question which is easily an- 
sW'Cred. The lord needed w^n to help him guard his 
castle, and fight his battles; and that Avas what the 
vassals supplied. Every year they might be called 
upon to serve their lord, as armored knights, for forty 
days in the field, besides rendering him other services. 
In this w^ay the lord obtained military followers, who 
were closely bound to him by ties of homage and fealty ; 
and the more vassals he had, the more pow^erful he 
became. 



RISE OF FEUDALISM 



111 



The lords themselves in turn often became the vassals 
of some greater lord above them, and bound themselves 
to brine all of their followers to serve him, 

° Lords, 

when called upon to do so. In the com- overlords, 
pleted system, the king of the land stood 
at the head ; tlien under him were his vassals, and under 
them were their vassals — and so on until we come down 
to the peasants. They were not looked upon as Avorthy 
to be the vassals of anybody; they were called "serfs" 




Loan AND PEPF.N'niCN'TS FE.VSTINQ 

or ** villains," and had to till the soil, and raise the food 
which supported all the classes above them. 

From what you have been told you might think that 
feudalism was an organization only for fighting ; but it 
was something more than this. It came to 
be an organization for governing the land gJvernmfnt. 
as well. The power of the kings became so 
weak that the feudal nobles were able finally to take 
into their own hands most things that the head of the 
state ought to liave done. In this way it came about 
that the feudal lords had the right to make war, coin 



112 THE SrOBT OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

money, make laws, and hold courts in their fiefs. Some- 
times they had tlieir own gallows, on which to hang 
offenders. The power that ought to have been in the 
hands of the head of the state was thus split u}) into 
many bits, and eacli of these great lords had part of it. 
The growth of the feudal system was going on every- 
where, in Western Europe, fi-om about the eighth to the 
eleventh centuries. It grew slowly, but it 
Growth of wrew surely ; for, in the weakened condi- 

feudahsm. r> .' i ^ 

tion of the state, it was the form of organi- 
zation that best met the needs of the people. So every- 
where, — in Spain, in France, in England, in Germany, 
and in Italy — we find the feudal castles arising; and 
men everywhere gave up their free land, received it 
back as fiefs, and became the vassals of lords above 
them. 

The existence of feudalism is one of the most im- 
portant facts about the Middle Ages. It is this which 

makes the government of that period so dif- 
resuits ferent from the governments of Greece and 

Home, and also from the government of to- 
day. Feudalism, moreover, led to other important 
changes. In the Church it made the abbots and bishops 
the vassals of the kings and nobles for the land which 
the Church held ; and since vassals owed military 
service, the bishops and abbots often became more like 
feudal warriors than mild and holy servants of Christ. 
Because the chief business of vassals and lords was 
fighting, much attention was paid to arms and armor, 
and to training for war. In this way arose the wonder- 
ful coats of mail and suits of armor of the Middle Ages ; 
in this way, also, arose the long training which one had 
to go through to become a knight, and the exciting 



EISE OF FEUDALISM 113 

"tournaments" in which the knights tried their skill 
against one another. 

In another chapter is an account of the life of the 
castle. AVe tell you of these things here only that you 
may see how truly we may say of this 
period that it was indeed the Feudal Age, |^e^^j ^^^ 
as it is sometimes called. Especially is this 
true of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. 
It is in those centuries especially that we find feudalism 
grown into a complete system, and ruling the whole 
life of the lands which the German conquerors had won 
from the Roman Empire. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Why do not men now seek to become the vassals of others? 

2. How did feudalism weaken the power of the king? 

3. How did the "serfs" differ from the "vassals"? 

4. Was feudalism a good or a bad thing in the Middle Ages? 

Give your reasons. 



XV 
DEEDS OF THE NORTHMEN 

Outline of Chapter 

Tlio Northnion at home; they become daring sea-rovers. 

Their first attacks on Gaul; story of Charlemagne; wide extent 

of their ravages; their leader Hastings; his attacks on Italy. 
The Northmen begin to make settlements; their great siege of 

Paris (885); they are repulsed by Count Odo; Odo becomes 

King of France. 
Eolf "the Ganger" is given Normandy; his followers become 

Christians and settle down; their descendants conquer Sicily 

and Southern Italy. 
Other deeds of the Northmen — in America, at Constantinople. 

and in Russia. 

OxE of the things "vvliich lielped the growth of feu- 
dalism was the coming of the Northmen into the 
Frankish Empire. 

The Northmen were a sturdy people who dwelt about 

the Baltic Sea, in the lands which their descendants — 

the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes — still 

The Northmen occupv. Tlicrc tliev had dwclt as long as 

at home. ^' ^ _ " 

we have any record of them. While the 
other Germans Avere seeking new homes in the fifth and 
sixth centuries, the Northmen had remained quietly at 
home, worshiping the old gods, and gaining a scanty 
living from their herds and fields, and from the sea. 
They were so far away from Rome that only faint re- 
ports reached them of the stirring events that were 
taking place in the Roman lands. For four hundred 
years after the Goths had crossed the frontier, the 
Northmen remained quiet. But at last Charlemagne's 

114 



DEEDS OF NOETHMEN 



115 



conquest of the Saxons brought Christianity and the 
Frankish rule close to their doors. Traders and mis- 
sionaries now began to come among them; from them 
they learned of the rich and beautiful lands which lay 
to the south, and their minds were dazzled by the 
thought of the easy victories which were to be won 
there. 

When finally the Northmen came into the Empire, 
they came, not by land, as the earlier invaders had 
done, but by sea. The rocky islands, the 
bold cliffs, and the narrow valleys of the Daring 

•^ sea rovers, 

Scandinavian lands did not tempt men to 
agriculture. On the other hand, the sea invited them 




A VIKING snip 

Notice the row of shiolds along the side; also tbe oars used for rowing. 

to voyage forth and seek adventures on its waters. The 
Northmen, therefore, became bold sailors ; and in their 
long, many-oared ships, they d^red the storms of 
heaven and tiie wrath of man, to sail wherever there 
was booty to be had or glory to be gained. They called 
themselves ''Vikings," which means "men from the 



116 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

viks, " or creeks of Scandinavia. Even in Charle- 
magne's time the Northmen had begun to trouble the 
southern lands, 

"One day, while Charlemagne tarried in a city of 
Southern Gaul," says an old writer, "a few Scan- 
dinavian boats came to plunder even within 
fn'oau"*''^^ the harbor of the city. Some thought at 
first that they were Jewish merchants ; 
others believed that they were from Northern Africa, 
or were traders from Brittany. But Charlemagne 
recognized them by the tleetness of their ships. 

" 'These are not merchants,' he said, 'but cruel 
enemies. ' 

"When the ships were pursued, they quickly disap- 
peared. Then the Emperor, rising from the table 
where he sat, went to tlie window wliich looked toward 
the east, and remained there a long time, his eyes filled 
with tears. No one ventured to ([uestion liim ; l)ut at 
last he said : 

" 'Do you know, my i'aitliful friends, why 1 weep so 
bitterly? It is not because I fear tluit these men should 
annoy me by their wretched acts of piracy. But I am 
deeply afflicted because during my lifetime they have 
come so near these shores ; and T am tormented by a 
great grief when I think of the woes they will inflict 
upon my successors and the whole nation.' " 

Before Charlemagne was dead, indeed, these hardy 

wanderers began to fulfill his prophecy ; and after he 

was gone the evil increased rapidlv. Now 

Wide extent 

of their the vikmg ships came by scores and hun- 

ravages. 

dreds, where before they had come singly 
and in dozens. The whole of Christendom suffered 
from them. They plundered the shores alike of Ger- 



DEEDS OF NORTHMEN 117 

many, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, and 
Italy. 

With their light vessels they would enter the river 
mouths and row as far into the heart of the country as 
they could. Then they would seize horses, and on these 
ride far and wide. They loved most of all to attack 
the churches and monasteries. They cared nothing for 
the Christian God, for they were still heathen; and in 
the churches were rich gold and silver vessels, and fine 
embroidered cloths. It was easier, also, to capture a 
church or a monastery than it was a castle, for the 
priests and monks were not fighting men. And if any 
resisted these fierce heathen, they were pierced with 
arrows, or cloven with their swords. 

One of the most famous vikings was named Hastings. 
Some say that he was not a Northman at all, but a 
French peasant, who had joined the sea- 
rovers. At all events, he was very strong, J^"/ ^^*<^«'' 

' •^ 7 Hastings. 

brave, and cunning, and became one of 
their most famous leaders. AVe first meet with him 
while Louis the Pious was King; for nearly fifty years 
aft(n' this he was busy plundering towns and wasting 
the country in different lands. Now we find him in 
France ; now he is in Frisia, just north of France ; now 
he is in Errgland ; now he is on the shores of Spain. 

On one voyage Hastings sailed around the Spanis'h 
perrinsula and entered the Mediterranean Sea. There 
he plundered Southern France, Africa, and 
Italy. He wished especially to plunder ^'^n^a"*'^'' 
Kome, as Alaric and the Vandal king had 
done before him. But he knew more about fighting 
than he did about geography. Orr the coast of Italy, 
north of Koiue, lay a little city called Luna, and Hast- 



118 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

ings mistook its marble palaces and churches for the 
buildings of Rome. Even the walls of Luna, however, 
were too strong to be taken by force ; so he was obliged 
to use a trick. He sent a messenger into the city say-' 
ing that he had not come to make war, but was dying 
and wished to be baptized a Christian. The bishop 
and rulers of the city were pleased at this, and Hastings 
was baptized as he wished. Then the next day word 
was brouglit from the ships that their leader was dead, 
and they wished him to be buried in the church of the 
city. There seemed no harm in tiiis request, so the 
rulers gave tlieir consent. Hastings, with his weapons 
lying by his side, was brought within the walls, and 
with him came some of liis l)est Avarriors, as mourners. 
AYhile the people of the city went with the funeral 
party to the church, the rest of the Nortlnnen landed 
from their ships and slipped through the unguarded 
gate. Then Hastings suddenly seized his weapons and 
sprang from the couch where he lay ; at once his fol- 
lowers fell upon the people, and in this way the town 
was soon won. 

At first the Northmen came only during the summer 

season, sailing home when the winter storms were due. 

Before long, however, they began to spend 

Jeufemen^ts. ^^^*^ winter also in Christian lands. They 

would seize upon an island lying off the 

coast, by a river 's mouth ; and from this as headquarters 

they would go forth at all times of the year to ravage 

the land. For many years this prayer was regularly 

used in the churches: "From the fury of the Northmen, 

good Lord, deliver us." 

The struggle lasted for a long time. In France, with- 
in fifty years after Charlemagne's death, Paris had 



DEEDS OF NORTHMEN 



119 



fallen three times. At first the weak kings tried to buy 
off the Northmen Avith gifts of money. But such gifts 
only made them greedy for more ; and payment had to 
be made again and again. Tiien the nobles and the 





curxx oDo Biti.Ni;iN(; aid to pakis 

cities took the defence into their own hands. In addi- 
tion to the castles which the nobles were building, the 
cities began to fortify bridges over the rivers, so that 
they could keep the pirate sliii)s from ascending the 
streams. 



120 THE STOBT OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

The most famous struggle of all came at Paris in the 

year 886. This city was not yet the capital of France, 

but its situation already made it important. 

Great siege i-, -it-ioc- 

of Paris It was Duilt ou a low islaud m the Seme, 

(885). 

with a fortified bridge connecting it with 
each bank. When the Northmen came up the river in 
that year, the governor of the city, Count Odo, and the 
bishop, encouraged the people to resist. The viking 
ships numbered seven hundred, and they carried an 
army of 40,000 men; but for eleven months the city 
held out, and in spite of the weakness and cowardice 
of the King, the Northmen at last were obliged to with- 
draw. 

The family of this Count Odo had already won great 
honor in warring against the Northmen. His father, 
Robert the Strong, had fallen, after many 
coTOt^odo*^ victories, fighting against the pirate Hast- 
ings. The brave defence of Paris now made 
Odo more powerful than ever, and men began to think 
how much worthier he was of the throne than the weak 
Carolingians. So the cowardly King who was then rul- 
ing was set aside, and Count Odo was chosen King in 
his place. 

After Odo's death the Carolingians regained the 
throne, but their hold upon it was weaker than ever. 
For about a hundred years the family of Odo continued 
to be the rivals of the Carolingians. Then (in 987) 
another descendant of Robert the Strong seized the 
throne, and this time the change of rulers was perma- 
nent. From that date, for more than eight hundred 
years, all of the kings of France were descendants of 
this great family; and their rule did not cease until 



DEEDS OF NOETHMEN 121 

the kingship came to an end in France, and a republic 
was set up in its place (1792). 

Twenty-five ycai-s alter tlie great siege of Paris, a 
hand of Nortlmien seeui'cd sucli a footing in Fi-aiicc 
that it was never possible afterwards to 
drive theui forth. Their leader was a man ^°^^ "t^5 

Ganger. 

of enormous size, strength, and courage; his 
name was Kolf (or Rolloj, and they called him "the 
Ganger," which meant "the AValker." Like Hastings, 
he was for nearly fifty years a sea-king, plundering 
Frisia, England, Scotland, and France. At the great 
siege of Paris, he was one of the chiefs. Unlike Hast- 
ings, however, Rolf was something more than a mere 
pirate and robber. AVheu he captured a town, he 
strengthened its walls, and rebuilt its churches, and 
sought to rule over it as a conquering prince. 

In this way he came to possess a number of towns 
which lay north and south of the mouth of tlie river 
Seine. At last, in the year 911, he secured 

, . Rolf grains 

a grant from llic King of France to a wide Normandy 
stretch of country in that region, Avith the 
title of Duke. Tins grant was made on three condi- 
tions. First, he must settle his Northmen there and 
leave the rest of the country at peace; second, he must 
become a Christian; and third, he must do homage to 
the French King as his feudal lord. This last condi- 
tion was very distasteful to Duke Rolf, and he could 
scarcely be induced to place his hands between the 
hands of the King, as was required. When he was told 
to kneel down and kiss the foot of the King, as was the 
custom, he refused, and calling one of his followers, 
commanded him to do it. This bold Northman, how- 
ever, had no more liking for the deed than iiis chief; 



122 TEE STOHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

and when he raised the King's foot to touch it to his 
lips, he topph^d the King over on his back ! 

In Normandy, as his land was called, Duke Rolf 

speedily showed that he was as good a ruler as he was 

a fighter. His followers settled down 

development quictly, uudcr his stern rule, and became 

of Normandy. , n'l - i,-^ i>,i -i -r, 

landlords and cultivators ot the soil. Be- 
fore he died, it is said that gold rings could be hung on 
the limbs of the trees, and no one would touch them. 
The Northmen learned rapidly in other ways too. They 
followed the lead of their Duke in being l)aptized, and 
soon all were Christians. They also laid aside their 
old speech and law, and in less than a hundred years 
the fierce sea-rovers had become as good Frenchmen, 
in speech and everything else, as could be found in the 
kingdom. Al)Out the only thing to mark the difference 
between these Normans, as they were called, and the 
rest of the P^reneh, was their greater energy, their skill 
in governing, and their fondness for the sea and ad- 
venture. 

Proof that they had not lost their energy or military 

skill Avas given in events which took place in tlie 

eleventh century. Within a little more than 

Normans con- •' 

it"aiy^a'*n"d^"" a huudrcd years after Duke Kolf and his 
Sicily, followers were established in France, their 

descendants began to send forth new bands of con- 
querors. By accident their attention was turned to 
Sicily and the southern part of Italy. Soon the greater 
part of these lands was concpiered from the Greeks and 
Mohammedans, and a Norman kingdom was established 
there, called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

This is not nearly all of the great deeds the North- 
men and their descendants performed nt this time; but 



DEEDS OF NORTHMEN 133 

we can only mention a few of the others. As every 
American boy and girl knows, the Northmen settled Ice- 
land and Greenland, and discovered America 

other deeds 

of the lone before Columbus was born. Twice 

Northmen. 

])ands of them attacked the city of Con- 
stantinople ; and after that they entered the service of 
the Greek Emperor, and for centuries made up his faith- 
ful bodyguard. In the far North, they made settlements 
in Russia, and gave a line of rulers to the great Russian 
Empire. And when the Crusaders set out to win Jerusa- 
lem from the infidels, the Normans of France, England, 
and Sicily took the leading part in these movements 
also. 

These old Northmen were truly a wonderful people, 
and their coming into the Southern lands did much to 
make the nations there stronger and more energetic 
than they would otherwise, have been. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Why did not the Northmen come into southern lands when 

the other Germans were coming? Why did they come in 
the ninth and tenth centuries? 

2. Show how the coming of the Northmen helped on the growth 

of feudalism. 

3. Write a story telling about a Viking expedition. 

4. In what ways was the coming of the Northmen a good thing 

for the lands of the Frank ish Empire? In what way was 
it a bad thing? 

5. Explain the difference between the terms Northman and 

Norman. 



XVI 
ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

Outline of Chapter. 

The Romans in Britain; they withdraw (about 410 A.D.). 

Cominfj of the Angles and Saxons (449 A.D.); they conquer the 
land and give it the name England; conversion of the Eng- 
lish by Augustine; union of the little kingdoms under a 
single rider. 

Invasions of the Northmen; youth of King Alfred; he saves 
England from the Northmen (871-901); his greatness. 

Canute of Denmark rules England; the old English line of kings 
restored; weak rule of King Edward; he favors the Nor- 
mans; Harold elected King. 

William of Normandy claims the English throne against Harold; 
he lands in England; battle of Hastings (1066); Harold is 
slain and William becomes King. 

The Britisli Isles were among the lands which suf- 
fered most from tiie raids of the viking Northmen, and 
it was there also tiiat the Normans of France made 
their greatest conquest. 

In the days when Rome was spreading her rule about 

the Mediterranean Sea. the larger of these islands was 

called Britain, from its inhabitants, the 

The Romans iJritous, who wcrc akin to the Gauls of the 

in Britain. 

Continent. Some time after the Romans 
had conquer-ed Gaul. l>ritaiti also was added to tlu'ir 
Empire and was ruled by the Romans for about three 
hundred and fifty years. But when the Empire had 
grown weak and llic German barbarians began to over- 
run Italy, Rome was o])liged to withdraw her legions 
from Britain, and that island was then left to govern 
and defend itself. 

The Britons, however, had lived so long under Roman 

124 



ENGLAND IN J HE MIDDLE AGES 



125 



rule that, by this time, they had almost forgotten how 
to fight. So, when wild tribes from Ireland and Scot- 
land came to attack 'them, the Britons were in an evil 
situation. At one time they wrote a letter to the Roman 
commander in Gaul^ in which they said : 

"The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throw^s 
us back on the barbarians. Thus two modes of death 
await us: we arc either slain, or drowned." (^ 

Also, roving bands of Germans, called Angles and 
Saxons, now began to trouble the shores of Britain, 
coming in their sw^ft pirate ships much as 
tlie Northmen were to do four hundred the English 

(449 A.D.). 

years later. When the Britons found that 
the Romans were not able to help them, they asked a 
liand of these sea- 
rovers to aid them 
against their other 
enemies, promising 
them rich rewards 
(449 A.D. ). When 
once the Angles 
and Saxons had 
secured a footing, 
they proceeded to 
conquer the island 
for themselves. In 

this way the Angles and Saxons won for themselves the 
fairest portion of the land. From the name of the first 
of tliese peoples, it came to be called "Angle-huid" or 
Knglaiid. It was only after two centuries of hard fight- 
ing, however, that the conquest was completed. In the 
western part of the island the Britons long kept their 
independence; and ther(\ under tlie name of "Welsh," 




, ,.-i-k^(jtK_- ij^j?- 



AX KARLY ENGLISH CHURCH 



126 TEE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

as they were styled by the new-comers (a word which 
meant foreigners), they continued for hundreds of 
years to use their own language; to follow their own 
laws, and to obey their own princes. 

Meanwhile the "English," as the descendants of the 
Angles and Saxons are called, settled down into a num- 
ber of little kingdoms. You have already 

Conversion . . . r. , ' 

of the read hoAV captive boys from one or these 

English. . ^ "^ 

kingdoms excited the pity of Pope Gregory 
when he saw them exposed for sale in the slave market 
at Kome, and how this led him to send the monk Au- 
gustine to f]ngland, to convert these new-comers. The 
English became Christians and grew more civilized, 
and finally their little kingdoms were joined together 
under the rule of a single king. 

But now they, in turn, were exposed to the danger 
of conquest; for like the Britons before tiiem the Eng- 

lisii liad, through long years of peace, lost 
of the much of their former warlike ability. The 

Northmen. 

new enemy was the Northmen, whose deeds 
we have described in the preceding chapter. Little by 
little they overran the island, plundering and destroy- 
ing monasteries and churches, until ^ only the south- 
western part of the island was still unconquered. But 
there they were met by a young English King who 
stopped their conquests and saved his people from ruin 
at their hands. 

This was the English national hero, Alfred, whom 
v^ later ages called "Alfred the Truth-Teller" and "Eng- 
land's Darling." "When he was a boy his 
Ki'ng'' Alfred, mother one day said to him and his brothers : 
"Do you see this little book, with its clear 
black writing, and the beautiful letter at the beginning, 



ENGLAND IN IRE MIDDLE AGES 127 

painted in red, blue, and gold? It shall belong to the 
one who first learns its songs." 

Books were precious things in those days, for print- 
ing was not yet invented and they must be made slowly 
and painfully by writing the letters with a pen. So 
Alfred exclaimed eagerly : 

"Mother, will you really give that beautiful book to 
me if I learn it first?" 

"Yes," she replied, "I really will." 

So Alfred set to work, with the aid of his teacher; 
and long before his brothers had nuistered it, he learned 
to repeat the verses. He thus not only earned the prize, 
but in doing it he showed the love of learning and 
quicknt^ss of mind which made him noted in after years. 

Tile first seven years of Alfred's rule as King were 
taken up with fighting the Northmen. At one time he 
was obliged to take refuge on a small island j^if^g^ 
amid swamps, whore he found shelter in a lYgllnd 
herdsman's hut, and was scolded by the '^^''^■^^^'>- 
herdsman's wife (who did not know who he was) for 
letting some coarse cakes burn which she was baking 
before the fire. An old song represents the woman 
as saying: 

Can't you mind the cakes, man? 

And don't you see them burn? 
I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough, 

As soon as 'tis the turn. 

In the end Alfred defeated the Northmen in a great 
battle, and forced their king to make peace. The re- 
mainder of his reign was given up to improving educa- 
tion and bettering the condition of his people. He was 
"the wisest, best, and greatest King that ever reigned 



128 



TEE STOBY OF THE MfDDLE AGES 



in England," and the good effet-ts of liis rule lasted 
long after he was gone. 

But, after a time, the rule came again into the hands 

of weak kings, and again Northmen overran the land. 

^ ^ , Canute, King of Denmark and Norway, 

Canute of ' '^ ■' ' 

iiTeTa^d "^"'^^ conquered England, and was recognized as 
(1016-1035). j^jj.g 1^^^. .^]i ^Ij.-^^ j.^j^j Fortunately the 

Northmen were now Christians and more civilized than, 
they had been in Alfred's day; and Canute ruled Eng 




HOUSE OF AX ENGLISH NOBLEMAN 
From an oUi manuscript. The lord and bis lady are giving alms to the poor. 



land as a strong and able King for nearl}- twenty years. 
After Canute's death there was again trouble for a 
number of years. First his unworthy sons ruled after 
him ; and when their short reigns Avere at an end, a well 
meaning but weak King of the old English line, named 
Edward, was placed on the throne. His mother was a 
Norman, and he himself had spent a part of his youtli 
in Normandv, where the descendants of the Northmen 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



129 



Avere now the most energetic and enlightened people of 
France. King Edward was so fond of the Normans 
that he invited many of them to come over into his 
kingdom, wliere he showed them such favor that it 
aroused the jealousy of the English and led to many 
conflicts. When Edward died, in the year 1066, with- 
out leaving a son to succeed him, the English chose as 
King a nobleman named Harold, who had taken a chief 
part in resisting those Norman favorites. 




Wn.HAM OF NORMANDY LANDIXO IN KNCr.AND 

The Duke of Normandy at this time was a strong 
ruler named William, wlio had already done great 
things and was looking about for an oppor- _, „ 

'^ " ' ^ The Normans 

tunity to do greater ones. He claimed jjjfg^iand 
that King Edward had promised him the (^°6^>- 
throne when, at one time, he had visited him in Eng- 
land; and also that Harold, who had taken Edward's 
place, had SAVorn never to become king. So, with a 
great army of Normans and Frenchmen, and with a 



130 



TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



banner blessed by the Pope, William landed on the 
shores of England to claim the throne. 

At a hill called Senlac, not far from the town of 
Hastings, the Normans found King Harold and his 
Englishmen awaiting them. For a time it looked as 
though the Normans would be defeated, for the Eng- 
lish ranks held firm and could not be broken. Three 
horses were killed under William, but he escaped with- 




HEATH OV lIAHOI.n 

From an old piece of embroidory. n.irokl is the seoond fisure from the left. 

The inscription (in Liitin) reads: "Harold the Kin;? is slain." 

out injury. At one time the cry was raised, "The 
Duke is down!" and the Normans began to give way. 
But William tore off his helmet that they might better 
see his face, and cried : 

"I live, and by God's help shall have the victory!" 
After a time AVilliam ordered his men to pretend to 
flee, in order to draw the English from their strong 
position. This move succeeded in part, but still the 
battle went on. William next ordered that a volley of 
arrows be shot high in the air, and one of these in 



ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 131 

falling struck Harold in the eye and slew him. Then 
the Normans easily won the battle. 

After this William got possession of all England, 
and was accepted by the people as their King. He is 
known in history as William the Conqueror. He was 
a strong and able ruler, and he and his descendants 
knew how to keep what their energy and valor had 
won. From that day to this, every king or queen who 
has ruled over England has been a descendant of this 
Norman Duke. His Conquest was the greatest feat 
which the Normans accomplished, and it is one of the 
most important events in the history of the Middle 
Ages. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. What other German peoples found homes within the Roman 

Empire in the same century that the Angles and Saxons 
did? 

2. Tell the story of Pope Gregory and the English slave boys. 

3. How long was it after the coming of the English that the 

Northmen began to invade the island? 

4. Why is Alfred considered so great a King? 

5. Was William's claim to the English throne a good one? 

6. In what way was the Norman Conquest a good thing for 

England? 



XVII 
THE FIRST CRUSADE 

Outline of Chapter 

Dates of the period of the Crusades; iinportanco of these move- 
ments; why they did not begin earlier. 

The Turks oppress ])ilgrims; I'oiie Urban II. calls the First Cru- 
sade (1095); jireparations for it. 

Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless set out; their fol- 
lowers destroyed. 

The princes make ready; they march to Constantinople; they 
wonder at its riches; they cross into Asia Minor. 

Letter from a Crusader; he tells of his gains; the siege of 
Antioch; sufferings of the Crusaders; their victories over 
the Turks. 

Finding of the "Holy Lance"; the Crusaders arrive before 
Jerusalem; they capture the city (1099); they massacre its 
defenders; their vows fulfilled. 

The period of the Crusades lasts from tlie year 1095 
to the year 1201. In the great movement in:duded be- 
tween these dates we find, for the first time, 
^mpor^ance jji-actieally the whole of Europe acting 
together for one end. And it was not only 
the rnlers Avho were eoneerned : priests and kings, 
nobles, townsmen, and peasants, alike took arms against 
the infidel. The story of the Crusades, therefore, is 
one of the most important and interesting parts of 
medijeval history. Nothing can better show what the 
^Middle Ages were like; and nothing helped more than 
they did to bring the iMiddle Ages to an end. 

The object of this movement was to bring Palestine, 
where Christ had lived and died, again under the rule 
of Christians. Until the Arabs began their conquests 
in the seventh century, the land had bem ruled by the 

1.32 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 



i: 



Eastern Emperors. Even after the religion of ]Moham- 
med was established, side by side with that of Christ, 
the Christians did not at first feel so badly -^j, ^he 
about it. They Avere too busy at home, b^gin"* 
fighting the Northmen and Hungarians, *"^'®'"- 
and settling the institutions under which th(\y were to 
live, to give nnieli attention to things so far away. 
Besides, the Arabs respected the holy places of the 




MAI' OF THE CKISAIiKS 



Christians, and allowed pilgrims to Jerusalem to come 
and go without harm or hindrance. 

But, about thirty years before William the Norman 
coiKjuered P]ngland, a new race appeared in the East. 
The Turks, who were a rude, fierce people 

Th© Xurlcs 

from Centrnl Asia, of close kin to the old oppress the 

, p 1 t 1 Christians, 

Huns, took the power troin the Arabs; and 

the treatment of tiie Christians was thenceforth very 

different. The Turks also were ^lohammedans, but 



134 



TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



they did not have the same respect for the religion of 
the Jews and Christians that the Arahs did. Besides, 
they were fiercer and more bloodthirsty, and in a short 
time they won from the Eastern Empire lands which 
the Arabs had never been able to 
conquer. Even Constantinople 
was not safe from them. 

"From Jerusalem to the .Egean 
Sea," wrote the P^mperor of the 
East to a Western ruler, ''the 
Tui'kish hordes have mastered all. 
Their galleys sweep over the Black 
Sea and the Mediterranean, and 
threaten the imperial city itself." 
In the West, too, quieter times 
had now come, and rulers and 
people could turn their attention 
al)road. Finally, there was now 
more enthusiasm for religion 
among all classes; so, when pil- 
grims returned from Jerusalem, 
telling of outrages committed 
against Christian persons and 
against Christian holy places, it was felt to be a shame 
that this thing should be. 

When, therefore, the Emperor of the East wrote to 

the Pope asking for aid against the Turks, the people of 

„ , „ the West were in a mood to grant it. At a 

Pope urban II. , . 

S c'l^sade g^eat Council held at Clermont, m France, m 
(1095). ^Y\e year 1095, Pope Urban II. laid the matter 

before the clergy and princes. IMost of those present 
were French; and Urban, who was himself a French- 
man, spoke to them in their own tongue. He told them 




A I'lUUU.M 



TUE FIRST CBUSADE 135 

of the danger to Constantinople and of the sad state of 
Jerusalem, while the western peoples were quarreling 
and fighting among themselves. In all that region, he 
said, Christians had been led off into slavery, their 
homes laid waste and their churches overthrown. Then 
he appealed to his hearers to remember Charlemagne 
and the victories which he was believed to have won 
over the Arabs, and urged them to begin anew the war 
with the ]\Iohammedans. 

''Christ himself," he cried, "will be your leader when 
you fight for Jerusnleiii ! Let your quarrels cease, and 
turn your arms against the accursed Turks. In this 
way you will i-cturn liouie victorious and laden with 
the wealth of your foes; or, if you fall in battle, you 
will receive an everlasting reward!" 

With one accord his hearers cried: *'It is the will of 
God! It is the will of God!" 

From all sides they hastened to give in their names 
for the holy war. Each person promising to go was 
given a cross of red cloth, which he was to wear upon 
his breast going to the Holy Land, and on his back 
returning. To those who "took the cross," the name 
"Crusaders" was given, from the Latin word wliieh 
means cross. 

The winter following the Council was spent in getting 
ready. All classes showed the greatest zeal. Preachers 
went about among the people calling upon 

1 11 1 i Ti X Preparations 

rich and poor, uol)le and peasant alike, to for the 

Ml Crusade. 

help free the Holy Land ; and whole villages, 
towns, and cities were emptied of their inhal)itants to 
join the Crusade. JMany sold all they had to get the 
means to go ; and thieves, robbers, and wicked men of 
all kinds promised to leave their wickedness and aid 



136 



lUE STOBY OF THE 211DDLE AGES 



in reselling the tomb of riirist Jesns from the 
infidels. 

The time set for the starting of the Crusade was the 
early summer of the year of 1096. But ihe common 
people could not wait so long. 

Under a monk named Peter 
the Hermit, and a poor knight 
called AValter the Penniless, 
great companies from Germany 
and France set out before that 
time. They had almost no 
money ; they were unorganized ; 
and there was no discipline or 
obedience in the multitude. 
The route which they took was 
down the river Danube, through 
the kingdoms of the Hungari- 
ans and Bulgarians, and so to 
Constantinople. Few of the 
people or their leaders had any 
idea of the distance, and as 
each new city came in sight, 
many cried out: "Is this Constantinople?" 

In Hungary and Bulgaria the people attacked them 
because they were forced to plunder the country as 
tliey passed through, and many were slain. 
When they reached Constantinople, some of 
the unruly company set fire to buildings 
near the city, wliile others stripped off sheets of lead 
from the roofs of churches to sell them to Greek mer- 
chants. The Emperor hastened to get rid of his un- 
welcome guests by sending them across into Asia JMinor. 
There witliin a few months AValti'i- and most of his 




A CUUSADF.R 



Peter the 
Hermit and 
Walter the 
Penniless. 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 



137 



followers were slain by the Turks; and the expedition 
came to a sorrowful end. 

^leanAvhile the princes from France, Germany, and 
Italy Avere making ready their expeditions. AVhile the 
Norman chiefs of Southern Italy were en- 
gaged in one of their many wars, a mes- ^''? princes 

" ' make ready. 

senger came to them with the news that 

countless warriors of France had started on the way to 

Jerusalem, and invited them to join the expedition. 













CRUSADERS ON TIIK MARCH 

"What are their weapons, what their badge, what 
their war-cry?" asked one of the Normans. 

"Our x^kpouH," replied tiie messenger, "are tliose 
best suitJllto war; our badge, the cross of Christ; our 
war-cry, 'It is the will of God ! It is the will of God !' " 

AVhen he heard tliese words, the Norman tore from 
his shoulders his costly cloak, and with his own hands 
he made crosses from it for all wlio would follow him 
to the Holy Land. There he became one of the most 
famous and renowned of the Crusaders; and his fol- 



138 ?'^^ STOST OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

loAvers showed tliat they could be as brave, as enter- 
prising, and as skillful in fighting for the Holy Land, 
as they had "been before in fighting for lands and goods 
in France, in England, and in Italy. 

The Crusaders set out at last in five different com- 
panies. The first started in August, 1096; the last did 
not join the others, near Constantinople, 

They march to . 

Constantinople uutil the ucxt suiiinier. The companies were 

(1096). P • , 

made up of trained and armed knights, 
Avitli chosen leaders, who had made many preparations 
for the expedition. They did not suffer so severely, 
therefore, as^|^lhe poor, ignorant people under Walter 
the Penniless, n^ill they encountered many hardships. 
It was already winter when the men of South France 
toiled over the mountains near Constantinople. 

"For three weeks," writes one of their number, "we 
saw neither ))ird nor beast. For almost forty days did 
we struggle on througli mists so thick that we could 
actually feel them and l)rush them aside with a motion 
of the hand." 

At last this stage of their journey came to an end, 
and the Crusaders arrived at Constantinople. In the 

lands north of the Alps, there were at that 
It'usTiche^s' ^'"^^ none of the vast and richly ornamented 

churches and other buildings which later 
arose ; all was poor, and lacking in stateliness and 
beauty. Constantinople, however, was the most beauti- 
ful city of the world ; so the sight of it filled the Cru- 
saders with awe and admiration. 

"Oh, how great a city it is!" wrote one of their 
number; "how noble and beautiful ! What wondrously 
wrought monasteries and palaces are therein ! What 
marvels everywhere in street and square ! It would be 



THE FIB ST CRUSADE I39 

tedious to recite its wealth in all precious things, in 
gold and silver, in cloaks of many shapes, and saintly- 
relics. For to this place shigs bring all things that man 
may require." 

Now that these sturdy warriors of the West were 
actually at Constantinople, tlie Greek Emperor began 
to fear lest they might prove more troublesome to his 
empire than the Turks themselves, 

"Some of the Crusaders," wrote the Emperor's 
daughter, "were guileless men and women marching in 
all simplicity to worship at the tomb of Christ. But 
there were others of a more wicked kind. Such men 
had but one object, and this was to get possession of 
th^ Emperor's capital." 

After much suspicion on both sides, and man}' dis- 
putes, the Emperor got the "Franks" — as the Cru- 
saders were called — safely away from the 

They cross 

city, and over into Asia Minor. There, at into Asia 
last, they met the Turks. At first the latter 
rushed joyously into battle, dragging ropes with which 
to bind the Christians captive ; but soon they found that 
the "Franks" were more than a match for them. 
Nica?a, the city where Constantino the Great held the 
first Church council, was soon taken ; and the Crusaders 
then pressed on to other and greater victories. 

Letter-writing was not nearly so common in those 
days as it is now; but some of the Crusaders wrote 
letters home, telling of their deeds. A few 
of these have come down to us across the ^^"*'" ^f""" 

a Crusader. 

centuries ; and in order that you may learn 

what the Crusaders were thinking and feeling, as well 

as what they were doing, one of them is given here. 



140 ^^UE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Tlie writer was a rich and powerful noble, and the let- 
ter was written while the army was laying siege, with 
battering rams and siege towers, to the strongly walled 
city of Antioch. 

"Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most 
amiable wife, to his dear children, and to all his vassals 
of all ranks, — his greeting and blessing : 

"You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger 

(whom I send to give you pleasure) left me before 

Antioch safe and unliarmcd, and througii 

?is gl\ns°^ God's grace in the greatest prosperity. Al- 
ready at that time we had been con- 
tinuously advancing for twenty-three weeks toward 
the home of our Lord Jesus. You may know for cer- 
tain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other 
kinds of riches I now have twice as much as your love 
had wished for me when I left you. For all our princes, 
with the common consent of the whole army and against 
my own wishes, have made me, up to the present time, 
the leader, chief, and director of their whole expe- 
dition. 

"You have certainly iieard tliat, after the capture 
of the city of Nica^a, we fought a great battle with tlie 
faithless Turks, and by God's aid conquered them. 
Next we conquered for the Lord all the Sultanate of 
Roum, and afterwards Cappadocia. Thence, con- 
tinually following the wicked Turks, we drove them 
through the midst of Armenia, as far as the great river 
Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and beasts 
of burden on the bank, they fled across the river into 
Arabia. 

"Some of the bolder of the Turkish soldiers, how- 
ever, entered Syria and hastened by forced marclies. 



I HE FIEST CnU!SADE 14X 

night and day, to enter the royal city of Antioch before 
our approach. The whole army of God, learning this, 
gave due praise and thanks to the all-powerful Lord. 
Hastening Avith great joy to Antioch, we 
besieged it, and had many conflicts there "^^^^l^^^ 

'' of Antioch. 

With the Turks. Seven times we fought, 
with the fiercest courage and under the leadership of 
Christ, against the citizens of Antioch and the in- 
numerable troops which were coming to its aid. In all 
these seven battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we 
conquered, and assuredly killed an innumerable host of 
them. In tliose battles, indeed, and in very many 
attacks made upon the city, many of our brethren and 
followers were killed, and their souls were borne to the 
joys of Paradise. 

"In fighting against these enemies of God and of our 
own, Ave have by God's grace endured many sufferings 
and innumerable evils up to the present 
time. Many have already exhausted all sufferings of 

, . . the Crusaders, 

their resources in this very holy expedition. 
Very many of our Franks, indeed, would have met 
death from starvation, if the mercy of God, and our 
money, had not helped them. Before the city of 
Antioch, and indeed throughout the whole Avinter, Ave 
suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold and 
great torrents of rain. What some say about tlie 
impossibility of bearing the heat of tiie sun througliout 
Syria is untrue, for the Avinter here is very simihir to 
our Avinter in the West. 

"When tile p]mir of Antioch — tliat is, its prince and 
lord— perceived that he Avas Iiard pressed by us, he 
sent his son to the prince Avho holds Jerusalem, and to 
the prince of Damascus, and to three other princes. 



142 ^^^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Thpso five Emirs, with 12,000 picked Turkish horse- 
men, suddenly came to aid the inhabitants of Antiocli. 
"We, indeed, ignorant of this, had sent many of our 
soldiers away to the cities and fortresses; 
Victories over j'^p tluTe are one hundred and sixty-five 

the Turks. " 

cities and fortresses throughout Syria 
which are in our power. But a little before they 
reached the city, we attacked them at three leagues' dis- 
tance, with seven hundred soldiers. God surely fought 
for us against them ; for on that day we conquered them 
and killed an innumerable multitude ; and we carried 
back to the army more than two hundred of their heads 
in order that the people might rejoice on that account. 

''These things which I write to you are only a few, 
dearest, of the many deeds which we have done. And 
because I am. not able to tell you, dearest, what is in 
my mind, I charge you to do right, to carefully watch 
over your land, to do your duty as you ought to your 
children and your vassals. You will certainly see me 
just as soon as I can possil)ly return to you. Farewell." 

The capture of Antioeh was the hardest task that 
the Crusaders had to perform; and it was not until 
three months later that the city was finally safe in their 
hands. Many of the Crusaders became discouraged 
meanwhile and started home. 

At this trying time, a priest declared that it had been 

revealed to him in a dream, thrice repeated, that the 

head of the spear which had pierced our 

Findinir of the Lord 's sidc lay buried near one of the 

Holy Lance. ^ 

altars of a church near by; and it was 
further revealed, he said, that if this was found and 
borne at the head of the army, victory would surely 
follow: After long search, and much prayer and 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 143 

fasting, the "Holy Lance" was found. Then there was 
great joy and new courage among the Christians ; and 
when next they marched against the Turks, the 
Crusaders fought more fiercely than ever. 

"Thanks to the Lord's Lance," whites one of their 
number, "none of us was wounded, — no, not so much 
as by an arrow. I, who speak these things, saw thera 
for myself, since I was bearing the Lord's Lance." 

The Crusaders continued to fight valiantly until 
Antioch was theirs, and the armies which had marched 
to its relief were defeated and scattered. 

The Crusaders were now free to march on to Jeru- 
salem. ]\Ien and animals suffered much from lack of 
food and water. "Many lay near the 
dried-up springs," says an old writer, before 

, , nil Jerusalem. 

unable to utter a cry because ot the dry- 
ness of their tongues ; and there they remained, with 
open mouths, and hands stretched out to those whom 
they saw had water." 

Again the priests saw visions ; and it was promised 
to the Crusaders that if the army marched ])arefoot 
around tiie city for nine days, the city would fall. 

So, a procession was formed, and the Crusaders 
marched around the city, with white-robed priests and 
bishops, cross in liand, at their head, chanting iiymns 
and praying as they went. As the procession passed 
by, the IMohammedans mocked at them from the walls; 
and some beat a cross, crying out : 

"Look, Franks! It is the Holy Cross on which your 
Christ was slain ! ' ' 

After this the chiefs ordered an attack on the city 
from two sides. The IMoiiammedans were now beaten 
back from the walls by the showers of stones thrown by 



144 



TEE STOIiY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 




MAciiiNi: idit iirnLiNc stonks 



the hurling- machines, while blazing arroAVS carried fire 
to the roofs of the buildings in the city. Battering 
rams, too, were at work breaking great 
cUyTi09°/).*^*^^*^^fi^ in the solid walls, and scaling lad- 
ders Avere placed, by which the Christians 
swarmed over the ramparts. So, at last, the city fell. 
Jerusalem,— the holy Jerusalem, which held the tomb 
of Christ — was now once more in the hancis of the 

Christians. But what 
a terrible day was 
that! How little of 
the meek and just 
spirit of Christ did 
his followers show I 

''\Vhen our men 

had taken the city, 

with its w^alls and 

towers," writes one of the Crusaders, "there were 

things wondrous to be seen. For some of the enemy — 

and this is a small matter — were deprived 

Massacre 

of the of their heads; others, riddled through with 

arrows, were forced to leap down from the 
towers; and others, after long torture, were burned in 
the flames. In all the streets and squares there were 
to be seen piles of heads, and hands, and feet; and along 
the public ways foot and horse alike made passage over 
the bodies of the slain." 

In this way the Crusaders fulfilled their vow to 
"wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the infidel." How 
many hundreds of thousands of lives, both Christian 
and ^lohannncdau, were lost to gain this end ! AVIiat 
agonies of battle, what sufferings on the way, what 
numbers of women made widows and children left 



% THE FIEST CEUSADE I45 

fatherless ! And all this, that the tomb of Christ might 
not remain in the hands of a people who did not accept 
his religion. How pityingly the Christ must 
have looked down upon this struggle with Jows^fumue" 
his mild, sweet eyes I How far away this 
bloodshed and war seems from the teachings of him 
whose birth was heralded by the angels' cry: ''Peace 
on earth, good will toward men!" 

"Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain 
mercy," said Christ. But this teaching, alas! the 
Crusaders seemed not to know. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Imagine yourself a boy or girl at the Council of Clermont, 
and write an account of the calling of the Crusade. 

-. Did men like Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless 
do more good or harm to the Crusade? Why? 

3. What other motives besides zeal for religion influenced men 

to go on the Crusade? 

4. Make a list of the things for which we should praise the 

Crusaders, and then make a list of their defects. 



XVIII 
THE LATER CRUSADES 

Outline of Chapter 

The Kingdom of Jerusalem organized; its defence prepared; the 
three "military orders." 

Fall of Edessa; failure of the Seeond Crusade (1147-49); rise 
of Saladin; he captures Jerusalem (1187). 

The Third Crusade organized (1189-92); death of Barbarossa; 
Philip of France and Richard of f>ngland set out; Richard 
takes Acre; I'hilip returns home; shipwreck and imprison- 
ment of Richard. 

The Fourth Crusade takes Constantinople (1204); the last Cru- 
sades; results of the Crusades. 

After the Holy Land was won, a government had to 
be organized to prevent it from slipping back into the 
hands of the infidels. 

The Crusaders knew only one way to rule a land, and 
that was the feudal wdv. All AVestern Europe was 
ruled by feudal governments, so feudal gov- 
jerusaiem emments were set up in Palestine. The 
land was divided into a number of fiefs, 
each of which was given to a Crusading chief. Jeru- 
salem, with the country about it, was formed into "the 
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem," and was given to God- 
frey, one of the most famous of the Crusaders. The 
rest of the land was formed into three principalities, 
each with its own feudal head, and with many vassal 
Crusaders. 

The peasants, Avho tilled the soil before the Crusaders 
came, were not driven off. They had long been Chris- 
tians, though tlieir worship was more like that of the 

146 



THE LATER CRUSADES 147 

Greeks than the Latins. The only difference in their 
position was that now they paid rent and taxes to 
Christian masters, and not to Turks and Saracens. 

As soon as Jerusalem had fallen, most of the 
Crusaders prepared to return home. Soon Godfrey and 
his fellow rulers were left, with mere handfuls of men, 
to resist the attacks of the Mohammedans. If the 
latter had been united, they could easily at this time 
have driven the ''Franks" into the sea. But the 
^Mohammedans were quarreling among themselves, and 
besides they had learned to fear the mail-clad Franks. 

So, the Christians were given time to prepare their 
defence. Huge castles were everywhere built, to 
protect the lands which they had won. 
New companies of Crusaders, too, con- "epwed!'''* 
stantly arrived to take the place of those 
who had returned home; and merchants from the 
Italian cities came to settle for the purpose of carrying 

on trade. 

Soon, too, three special "military orders" were 
formed to protect the Holy Land, and to care for the 
sick. The first of these was the Knights of ^^^ ^^^^^ 
the Hospital, or the Knights of St. John; '^^^^^^^y 
its chief purpose was to care for and pro- 
tect sick pilgrims. The second was the Order of the 
Temple, or Knights Templars; they got their name 
because their headquarters were in the royal palace at 
Jerusalem, which was near the site of the old temple. 
The third was the Order of the Teutonic Knights, which 
received its name because its members were Germans, 
while the members of the other orders were mostly 
French. 

The members of these orders were both monks and 



148 



TEE STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 



knights. They were bound, like monks, by vows of pov- 
erty, chastity, and obedience; but they were also 
knights, engaged in a perpetual crusade against the in- 
fidel. The Hospitallers wore a white cross on a black 
mantle ; the Templars a red cross on a white mantle ; 
and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white man- 
tle. These "military orders" became very powerful 
and wealthy, and helped a great deal to keep the 
Holy Land in the hands of the Christians. 

For nearly half a century aftt'r eJerusalem was 
recovered there was no very great danger to the rule 
of the Franks. Then all Europe was 
Edess°a Startled by the news that Edessa, one of the 

four Christian principalities, had been con- 
quered by the Saracens, and the Christians put to the 

sword. At once there 
was great fear lest 
the other states 
should fall also, and 
preparations w ere 
made for sending out 
a large number of 
Crusaders to their as- 
sistance. 

This expedition 
started in the year 
1147, and is known 
as the Second Cru- 
sade. The kings of 
two of the leading countries of Europe, Conrad III. of 
Failure of the Germany and Louis VII. of France, led the 

Second Crusade ' 

(1147-49). forces. Their armies took the same route — 
down the river Danube and across to Constantinople 




A KXICIIT TEMPI.AU 



THE LATER CRUSADES I49 

— that the First Crusade had followed. Again there 
was terrible suffering on the way. The German army 
was almost entirely destroyed in Asia Minor; and 
although the French reached Palestine in safety, very 
little was accomplished in the way of strengthening the 
Christians there. 

After the failure of this Crusade, there was no great 
change for forty years. However, twice a year, in the 
spring and in the autumn, a number of vessels would 
sail from tlie cities of Italy and Southern France, 
carrying pilgrims and adventurers to Palestine. In 
this way, the strength of the Christian states was kept 
up, in spite of the number who were constantly 
returning. 

Towards the end of this period, rumors began to 
come of a great ^Mohammedan leader, who liad arisen 
in Egypt, and was threatening Palestine 
with new danger. He was called Saladin, f^fadin. 
and was one of the greatest rulers the 
Mohammedans ever had. He was foremost in battle, 
and wise and far-sighted in council. When he was 
victorious, he dealt generously with his enemies; and 
when he was defeated, he was never cast down. He 
was ever simple in his habits, just and upright in his 
dealings, and true to his promises. He was, in short, 
as chivalrous a warrioi", and as sincere a believer in 
his faith, as any of the Christian knights against Avhom 
he fought. 

For Saladin, as well as for the Crusaders, the war 
for Palestine was a "holy war"; and soon his power 
was grown so great that he could attack them from 
;ill sides. 



150 2'ff£ STOE¥ OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

"So great is the multitude of the Saracens and 
Turks," wrote one of the Crusaders in speaking of his 
armies, "that from the city of Tyre, which they are 
besieging, they cover the face of the earth as far as 
Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants." 

When the Christians marched out to battle, they 

were overthrown with terrible slaughter ; and the King 

of Jerusalem, and the Grand Master of the 

Jerusalem Tcmplars, wcrc among the captives taken. 

(1187). tj i 

Three months after this, Saladin laid siege 
to Jerusalem itself. For two weeks the city held out ; 
at the end of that time it was forced to sue for peace. 
The mercy which Saladin now sliowed to the con- 
quered Christians was in strange contrast to the 
cruelty which the Crusaders had displayed, when the 
city fell into their hands. There was no slaughter, 
such as had occurred ninety years before ; and the 
greater number of the defeated party were allowed to 
go free, on paying a ransom. But the crosses on the 
churches were torn down, the bells were destroyed, 
and the churches themselves were changed into 
iMohammedan- mosques. Once more the Holy Land 
was in the hands of the unbelievers. 

AVhen news of these events reached Europe, it 
caused great excitement. The three most powerful 

rulers, — Frederick of Germany, Philip of 
crusade"^ Fraucc, and Richard the Lion-llearted of 

( 1189-92) 

England, — took the cross, and in the years 
1189 and 1190 they led forth their followers to the 
Third Crusade. 

The Emperor Frederick of Germany, — who was 
called "Barbarossa," on account of his red beard, — 
had been one of those who followed King Conrad in the 



THE LATEFi CEU SAVES 



151 



.-^M;^:^;^, 



Second Crusade ; now although he was seventy years 
old, he was the first to start on the Third. He led his 
army by the old land route, but his forces 
were better organized, and there was garbaroLa 
not so much hardship as there had been 
before. Except for one battle which they had to fight 
with the Greek Em- 
peror, all went well 
until the army 
reached Asia ]\Iinor. 
There, alas! the 
old Emperor was 
drowned, while swim- 
ming a river one hot 
day, to refresh him- 
self and shorten his 
way. After that the 
German army went 
to pieces, and most 
of its members lost 
their lives in the 
mountains and 
deserts o f A s i a 
]\Iinor, or else they were cut down by Turkish soldiers. 
In Germany the people refused to believe that their 
King was dead. Long after tiiis, stories were told of 
the good Barbarossa, who slept from year to year in 
a rocky cavern high up on a lonely mountain side, with 
his head resting on his hand and his long red beard 
grown round the granite blocks by his side. There, 
the people said, he lay sleeping throughout the ages; 
but when tlie ravens should cease to fly about the 
mountain, the Emperor would wake to punish the 
wicked and bring back the golden age to the world. 




TIIIO LICCJKM) OF HAKBAKOSSA 



152 



IRE STOin OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



Philip of 
France and 
Richard of 
England. 



When, at last, Philip of France and Richard of 
England were ready, they took ship in order to avoid 
the hardships of the journey by land. 
From the beginning, however, things went 
wrong. Richard and Philip were very 
jealous of each other, and could not get along together. 

Philip was only half- 
hearted in the Crusade, 
and longed to bo back 
in France; while Rich- 
ard allowed hiiiis(>lf to 
be turned aside for a 
while to other things. 

AVhen they reached 

the Holy Laud, they 

found the Christians 

laying siege to Acre, 

one of the sea-ports 

near Jerusalem. The 

siege had already 

lasted more than a year. 

and for several months 

longer it dragged on. 

It was a dreary time 

for the C h r i s t i a n s. 

"The Lord is not in the 

camp," wrote one of their number; "there is none that 

doeth good. The leaders strive with one an- 

Awe! °^ other, while the lesser folk rstarve. and have 

none to helj). The Turks are persistent in 

attack, while our knights skulk within their tents. The 

strength of Saladin increases daily, but daily does our 

army wither away." 




.VTTACKING A CITY— I 



TEE LATEB CEV SAVES 



153 



At last Acre was taken, — mainly through the skill 
and daring of King Richard, who was one of the best 
warriors of that day, and well knew how 
to use the battering-rams, stone-throwers, J^kes^Acre 
movable towers, and other military 
"engines" to ])atter doAvn walls and take cities. Philip 
was already wi^ary of 
the Crusade, and soon 
returned to France. 
Richard remained for 
more than a year 
longer. In this time he 
won some military suc- 
cesses, ])ut he could not 
take Jerusalem. 

Finally, news came to 
Richard from p]nglaud 
liiat his brother John 
was plotting to make 
himself king. Richard 
was now obliged to re- 
turn home. The only 
advantage he had 
gained for the Chris- 
tians was a truce for 
three years, permitting 
pilgrims to go to the TToly Seiiulclire at Jerusalem 
without hindrance. 

Before he left, Richard warned Saladin that he would 
return to renew the war ; but he never did. 
On his way home he was shii)wrecked and ^o^/.^*"™ 
was obliged to pass l)y land tlirough Ger- 
many. There he was recognized ])y his enemies and 
kept prisoner till he pnid a heavy ransom. Then, after 




ATT.VOKIXG .\ CITY— 11 



154 TRE STOEY OF TUE MIDDLE AGES 

liis release, he foiiud himself engaged in troubles with 
his brother John, and at war with King Philip; and at 




ST. LOUIS IN CAPTIVITY 



last, in the year 1109, he died from an arrow wound 
Avhih^ fighting in France. 



TEE LATER CEUSADES I55 

The remaining Crusades are not of so much 
importance as the First and the Third. 

On the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders were per- 
suaded hy the Venetians to attack the Christian city 
of Constantinople. In this way the Greek „^ ^ 

^ •' The Fourth 

Empire passed for fifty years into the cr^sade to 

'■ ^ ^ ./ Constantinople 

hands of the Latin Christians. The (i^o*)- 
Venetians were the ones who chiefly profited by this 
Crusade, for they secured many islands in the Eastern 
Mediterranean Sea, and important trading privileges. 

As a result of the Fifth Crusade, Jerusalem was 
recovered for a while ; but tliis was accomplished 
through a treaty, and not as the result of victories won 
])y arms. 

The Sixth Crusade was led by the good King, St. 
Louis of France. The Crusaders now sought 
to attack the Saracens in Egypt ; but they 'c^uJ^ls. 
were defeated, and the French King him- 
self was captured and forced to pay a heavy ransom to 
secure his freedom. 

The. last Crusade was the Seventh, which was also 
led by St. Louis of France. Now the Crusaders 
attacked the Saracens in Tunis. Again the Crusade 
was a failure, and this time the French King lost liis 
life fl270), through a sickness which broke out in the 
army. 

After this, for more than a century, popes and kings 
talked of crusades, and raised taxes and made prepara- 
tions for them. But thougli they fouglit 
the heathen in 1 russia, and the ^lonain- cmsading 

movement. 

medans in Spain and in Hungary, no more 

crusades went to the Holy Land to win the Sepulchre 

of Christ from the infidel. Men no longer thought 



156 i'JiF^ SrOKY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

that this was so import aut as it had once seemed to 
them; and no doubt they were right. It doesn't malve 
so much difference wlio rules the land where Christ 
lived and died ; the great question is whether Christ 
lives and rules in the hearts and lives of those who 
follow him. 

Although the Crusades failed in Avhat tlicy were 

intended to aecomplish, they had some very important 

results. The returning Crusaders brought 

of the l)ack witii them many plants and other 

Crusades. ■ ■ i ' i- 

things which were new to Kurope. Among 
these Avere the sugar cane, orange, lemon, watermelon, 
apricot, and rice. Cottons, muslins, damask, satin, vel- 
vet, and new dye-stuffs were also introduced. Besides 
these new products, there were changes at home which 
were even more important. The expense of setting 
forth on the Crusades caused many lords to free their 
serfs in return for money, and to sell to the towns 
which were on their lands tiie right to govern them- 
selves. The power of the nobles was thus weakened 
by these expeditions, while that of the King and towns 
was strengtlicned. 

Most important of all was the influence of the Cru- 
sades on ideas. For nearly two hundred years men 
were going and coming in great numbers to and from 
the Holy Land, s-nnng strange countries and strange 
peoples, and learning new customs. Before the Cru- 
sades, each district lived by itself, and its inhabitants 
scarcely ever heard of tlie rest of the world. During 
the Crusades this separation was broken down, and 
peoples from all parts of Christendom met together. 
In this way men came to learn more of the world, and 
of the people who dwelt in it ; and their minds w^ere 



I 



THE LATEIl ClRT'SADES I57 

broadened by this knowledge. Never after the Cru- 
sades, as a result, was the life of man quite so dark, 
so drearj^ and so narrow, as it had been before. From 
this time on, the Middle Ages gradually changed their 
character ; for influences were now at work to bring 
this period to an end, and to bring about the begin- 
ning of Modern Times. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Why was the feudal plan of government a good one for the 

lauds won by the Crusaders in Palestine? 

2. In what ways were the "military orders" better defenders 

of Palestine than ordinary Crusaders? 
13. Read Sir Walter Scott's account of an imaginary interview 

between King Richard and Saladin (The Talisman, 

ch. xxvii). 
-i. Draw four columns on the blackboard, and set down in the 

first the words ' ' First Crusade ", " Second Crusade ' ', etc. ; 

in the second the dates; in the third the leaders; and in 

the fourth tjie results of each one. 



XIX 
LIFE OF THE CASTLE 

Outline of Chapter 

Place of the castle in the life of the Middle Ages. 
Plan of a Norman castle in the eleventh century; entrance to 
it; the outer court; the inner court; the "keep" of the 
castle; attacks on castles. 
The castle in time of peace; the great "hall"; dwellers in the 
castle; training for knighthood; the "page"; life of the 
"squire"; amusements of the castle folk; falconry; hunting 
with hounds. 
The conferring of knighthood; feats and feasting. 

Before we consider what the influences were which 

brought the Middle Ages to a close, we must see more 

clearly what the life of that period was 

J;"L,°^ «^^ like. We will first read about the life of 

Middle Ages. 

tlie castle, where lordly knights and gentle 
ladies dwelt. Then we will see what was the manner 
of life of the peasants who dwelt in the villages, and 
the merchants and craftsmen who dwelt in the cities 
and towns. Finally, we will visit the monasteries, and 
see what was the life of the monks and nuns, who gave 
their lives to the service and praise of God. 

If you visit France, Germany, and other European 
countries today, you will find everywhere the ruins of 
great stone castles, rearing their tall towers on the 
hilltops, and commanding the passage of roads and 
rivers. At the present time these are mostly tumbled 
down and overgrown witli moss and ivy, and nobody 
cares to live within their dark walls. 

158 



LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 



159 




A CASTLE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 



160 TEE S'lOBY OF THE MIDDEE AGES 

In the Middle Ages it was not so. TJien the castles 
were the safest places in which to live; so in spite of 

their cold and gloom, they became the 
cSties. centers of the life of the time. It was 

from tlie castles that the feudal barons 
ruled their lands. It was there that the people found 
refuge from tlie attacks of Northmen and Hungarians. 
It was from the castles tliat the Crusaders set out for 
the Holy Land. In them chivalry was born and 
/iourished ; at tlieir gates tournaments, jousts, and 
other knightly festivals took place; and in their halls 
the Avandering singers, who were building up a new 
literature, found the readiest welcome a-nd the most 
eager and appreciative listeners. 

Let us fancy ourselves back in the eleventh or 
twelfth century, and examine a castle. We shall find 
the country very different, we may be sure, from what 
it is today. Great forests stand where now there are 
flourishing toAvns ; and everything has a wilder, more 
unsettled look. 

Here is a castk', in France, that will suit our pur- 
pose. It was built ])y one of tlie vassals of AViDiam the 

Conqueror, and has been the scene of many 
Norman castle. ^^^"S"^''*^ ^"<^^ battlcs. See how everything is 

arranged so as to make easy its defence. 
It is built on the top of a steep hill, and around its 
walls is dug a deep ditch or moat. At the outer edge 
of the moat we see a strong palisade of heavy stakes 
set in the ground. Just inside tiiis is a path, along 
which sentries march in time of war. The gate, too, 
is doubly and triply guarded. In front of it is a draw- 
bridge across tlie moat — indeed, there are tAvo ; and 
the space between is guarded by a protecting wall. 



LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 161 

In later clays these draAvbridges were made stronger 
and more complicated, and heavy towers, with Avails 
of masonry, were built, the better to protect the 
entrance. 

When we have passed these outer works, we come to 
a heavy wooden door between two tall toAvers which 
mark the entrance to the Avails, AVe pass 
through this, and find ourselves Avithin the ^"tr^nce 

'^ ' to It. 

galcAvay. But Ave are still far from being 
in the castle. In the nan-OAv vaulted passage-Avay 
before us, Ave see suspended a heavy iron grating, 
called tlie portcullis. Avhich may come rattling doAvn 
at any moment to bar our passage. And beyond this 
is another door; and beyond tiiis another portcullis. 
The entrance to the castle is indeed Avell guarded ; and 
the porter Avho keeps Avatch at the gate, and has to 
open and shut all these barriers, is at times a busy 
man. 

At last Ave are past the gatcAvay and find ourselves 
in an open courtyard. The thick Avails of the castle 
surround us on all sides, and at their tops 
Ave see the battlements and loopholes JJj,®t°"*®'" 
through Avhich arroAvs may be shot at t1u' 
enemy. Here and there the Avail is protected by stone 
tOAvers, in Avhich are stairAvays leading to tlie battle- 
ments above. In the first courtyard Ave find the stables, 
Avhere the lord of the castle keeps his horses. Here, 
too, is space for the shelter of the villagers in time of 
Avar; and here, perhaps, is the great brick oven in 
Avhich bread is baked to feed the lord and all his 
folloAvers. 

Going on Ave come to a Avail or palisade, Avhich 
separates the courtyai-d Ave are in from one Ijnng 



162 '^Hl^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

beyond it. In later times this wall, too, was made much 
stronger than we find it here. Passing through a gate- 
way, we come into the second courtyard, 
court!""*' Here again we find a number of buildings, 
used for different purposes. In one are 
the storerooms and cellars, where provisions are 
kept to enable the dwellers in the castle to stand 
a siege. Next to this is a building shaped like a great 
jug, with a large chimney at the top, and smaller 
ones in a circle round about. Tiiis is the kitchen, in 
which the food is cooked for the lord of the castle and 
his household. The cooking, we may be sure, is usually 
simple, — most of the meats being roasted on spits over 
open fires, and elaborate dishes, with sauces and spices, 
being uncommon. ]\Iost castles have, in addition, a 
small church or chapel in this courtyard, in which the 
inhabitants may worship. 

The most important building of all is still to be 
described. There at the end of the courtyard we see 
the tall ''keep'' of the castle, which the 
of'the^M^tie. I'^i'cnch Called "donjon," and in whose 
basement there are "dungeons" indeed, for 
traitors and captured enemies. This is the true strong- 
hold of the baron, and it is a secure retreat. Think of 
all the hard fighting there must be before the enemy 
can even reach it. The drawbridges must be crossed, 
the gates must be battered down, and the portcullises 
pried up ; the first courtyard must be cleared ; the 
dividing wall must be carried ; the second courtyard 
also must be cleared of its defenders. And when the 
enemy, bruised and worn, at last arrives at the keep, 
their work is just begun. There the lord and his 



LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 163 

followers will make their last stand, and the fighting 
will be fiercer than ever. 

The walls of the keep are of stone, eight to ten feet 
thick; and from the loopholes in its frowning sides 
peer skilled archers and crossbowraen, 
ready to let fly their bolts and arrows at fh"\tsVe" 
all in sight. A long, long siege will be 
necessary, to starve out its defenders. If this is not 
done, movable towers must be erected, battering rams 
placed, stone-hurling machines brought up, blazing 
arrows shot at the roof and windows, and tunnels dug 
to undermine the walls. In this way the castle may 
be burned, or an entrance at last be gained. But 
even then there will be fierce fighting in the narrow 
passageways, in the dimly-lighted halls, and on the 
winding stairways which lead from story to story. It 
will be long, indeed, before our lord's banner is torn 
from the summit of the tow^r, and his enemy's is 
placed in its stead ! And even when all is lost, there 
still remain hidden stairways in the castle walls, 
underground passages opening into the moat, and the 
gate in the rear, through which the lord and his 
garrison may yet escape to the woods and open fields ; 
and so continue the battle another day. 

In later days, stronger and more complicated castles 
were erected, especially after Western lords had begun 
to go on the Crusades, and had seen the great 
fortresses of the Eastern Empire. The picture on the 
following page shows such a castle, erected in Nor- 
mandy by Richard the Lion-Hearted, and called by 
him the ''Saucy Castle" (Chaicaii Qaillard) because of 
its defiance of the French King. The picture also 



1G4 



THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



>L- 







CASTLK IN NORMAXnV KtXONGIXG TO RRIIAKU THE LKIX IIKAUTKH 
OF ENGLAND * 



LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 165 

shows hurling engines set for attack, and a movable 
tower bei-Dg brought to scale its walls. 

But let us now inquire concerning the life of the 
castle in time of peace. "Where and how did the lord 
and his household live ? How were his 
children educated? And with what did fn^^a^"* 
they, amuse themselves in the long days 
when there was no enemy to attack their walls, and 
no distant expedition in which to engage ? 

Sometimes the lord and his family lived in the upper 
stories of the huge donjon, where arms and supplies 
were always stored. But this was so 
gloomy, with its thick walls and narrow ^^j^j ^"^^^^ 
windows, that many lords built more co^n- 
fortable "halls" in their courtyards, and preferred to 
live in tlicse. 

Let us hjok in upon such a "hall," whether it is in 
the donjon, or in a separate })uilding. There we find a 
great wide room, large enough to hold all the inhabi- 
tants of the castle, when the lord wishes to gather 
them about him. Tliis is the real center of the life of 
the castle. Here the lord eats and sleeps; here the 
great banquets are given ; here he receives his vassals 
to do homage ; here he plays chess and backgammon 
with his companions ; and here in the evening the 
inmates gather, perchance to listen to the songs and 
tales of M'andering minstrels. 

"VYithin the castle are many people, occupying them- 
selves in many ways. In the courtyards are servants 
and dependents caring for the horses, 
cooking in the kitchen, and busily engaged Jji^^ca\"ie.'* 
in other occupations. p]lseAvhere are those 
whose duty it is to guard the castle — the porter at the 



166 THE STOIiY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

gate, the watchnian on the tower, and the men-at-arms 
to defend the walls in ease of attack. Besides these 
we see many boys and young men Avho are evidently 
of too noble birth to be servants, and yet are too young 
to be w^arriors. Who can they be? 

These are the sons of the lord of the castle, and of 

other lords, who are learning to be knights. Their 

training is long and careful. Until he is 

knSthood"' seven years old, the little noble is left to 

the care of his mother and the women of 

the castle. At the age of seven his knightly education 

begins. Usually the boy is sent a"\vay from home to 

the castle of his father's lord, or some famous knight, 

there to be brought up and trained for knighthood. 

From the age of seven till he reaches the age of 

fourteen, the boy is called a "page" or "varlet," which 

means ''little vassal." There he waits 

^^« upon the lord and ladv of the castle. He 

page. '■ ' 

serves them at the table, and he attends 
them Avlien they ride forth to the chase. From them 
he learns lessons of honor and bravery, of love and 
chivalry. Above all, he learns how to ride and handle 
a horse. 

When the young noble has become a well-grown lad 

of fourteen or fifteen, he is made a ''squire." Now it 

is his duty to look after his lord's horses 

^i^® of . and arms. The horses must be carefully 

the squire. _ *^ 

groomed every morning, and the squire 
must see that their shoes are all riglit. He must also 
see that his lord's arms and armor are kept bright and 
free from rust. When the lord goes forth to war, his 
squire accompanies him, riding on a big strong horse, 
and carrying his lord's shield and lance. When the 



LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 



167 



lord goes into battle, his squire must stay near, leading 
a spare steed and ready to hand his master fresli 
weapons at any moment. After several years of tliis 
service, the squire may himself be allowed to use 
weapons and fight at his lord's side; and sometimes he 
may even be allowed to ride forth alone in search of 
adventures. 

In this manner the squire learns the business of a 




A L.\DY HUNTING WITH A FALCON 

knight, whieli is fighting. But he also learns his 
amusements and accomplishments. 

Let us approach a group of squires in the castle liall, 
when their work is done, and they are tired 
of chess and backgammon. They are dis- of the 

. castle folk. 

putmg, perhaps, as to winch is the more 
interesting, hunting or fah'onry; and we may hear a 
delicate featured squire hold forth in this way : 



168 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

"AVhat can be prettier than a bright-eyed, well- 
trained falcon liawk"? And what can be i:>leasanter 

than the sport of Hying it at the birds? 
Falconry. Take soiuc fine September morning, when 

the sky is blue and the air is fresh, and our 
lord and lady ride forth with their attendants. Each 
carries his falcon on his gloved hand, and we hurry 
forward in pursuit of cranes, herons, ducks, and other 
birds. When one is sighted, a falcon is unhooded, and 
let Hy at it. The falcon's bells tinkle merrily as he 
rises. Soon he is in the air above the game, and swift 
as an arrow he darts upon the prey, plunging his talons 
into it, and crouching over it until the hunter gallops 
up to recover ])oth falcon and prey. This is the finest 
hunting. And what skill is necessary, too, in rearing 
and training the birds ! Ah, falconry is the sport for 
me!" 

But this does not seem to be the opinion of others of 
the group. Their views are expressed by a tall, 
strongly-built squire, who says: 

' ' Falconry is all right for women and boys, but it is 
not the sport for men. AVhat are your falcons to my 

hounds and harriers? The education of one 
with^hfunds S^o'-^ ])oar-liound, I can tell you, requires 

as much care as all your falcons; and Avhen 
you are done the dog loves you, and that is more tlian 
you can say for your hawks. And the chase itself is 
far more exciting. The hounds are uncoupled, and set 
yelping upon the scent, and away we dash after them, 
plunging through the woods, leaping glades and 
streams in our haste. At last we reach the spot where 
the game has turned at bay, and find an enormous 
boar, defending himself stoutly and fiercely against the 



LIFE OF THE CASTLE 



1G9 



hounds. Right and lei't he rolls the dogs. With his 
back bristling with rage, he charges straight for the 
huntsmen. Look out, now; for his sharp tusks cut 
like a knife ! But the huntsmen are skilled, and the 
dogs play well their part. Before the beast can reach 
man or horse, he is pierced by a dozen spears, and is 
nailed to the ground, dead! Isn't this a nobler sport 
than hawking?" 




ARMING TITK KXinriT 



So, we may be sure, most of tiie knights and squires 
will agree. But the ladies, and many of the squires 
and knights, will still love best the sport of falconry. 

In this way the squire spends his days until he 
reaches the age of twenty or twenty-one. He has now 
proved both his courage and his skill, and at last his 
lord says that he has "earned his spurs." 

So the squire is to be made a knight : and tliis is the 



170 



TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



occasion for great festivities. lu company with other 
squires who are candidates for knighthood, he must go 

through a careful preparation. First comes 
2?knShood!^ ^^^6 "^^th, which is the mark of purification. 

Then he puts on garments of red, white, 
and black. The red means the blood he is willing to 
shed in defence of the Church and of the oppressed; 





A GREAT FEAST IX THE TWELFTH CENTURY 

Tlic birds Dyins alwiit have liccn "liak?d in a pii'," as in tlip old song, and 
falcons are now loosed at tbora. 

the wliile means that his mind is pure and clean; and 
the black is to remind him of death, which comes to all. 
Next comes the "watching of the arms." All night 
the squires keep watch, fasting and praying, before 
the altar in the church on which their arms have been 
placed ; and though they may stand or kneel, they 
must on no account sit or lie down. At the break of 



LIFE OF TUE CASTLE 



171 



day the priest comes. After they have each confessed 
their sins to him, they hear mass and take the holy 
sacrament. Perhaps, too, the priest preaches a sermon 
on the proud duties of the knights, and the obligations 
which they owe to God and the Church. 

At last the squires assemble in the courtyard of the 
castle, or in some open place outside the walls. There 
they find great numbers of knights and ladies who 
have come to grace the occasion of their knighting. 
Each squire in turn now takes his place on a carpet 
which is spread on the ground, and his friends and 
relatives assist in girding on his armor and his sword. 
Then comes the most trying moment of all. His father 
or his lord advances and gives him what is called the 
"accolade." At first this was a heavy bloAv with the 
fist, given upon the squire's neck; but later it was 
with the flat of a sword upon his shoulder. At the 
same time the person who gives the accolade cries out: 

"In the name of God, and St. Michael, and St. 
George, I dub thee knight! Be brave and loyal!" 

The squire is now a knight, but the festival is not 
yet over. The new-made knights must first give an 
exhibition of their skill in riding and 
handling their horses, and in strikins: with Tournaments 

' c> and leasting. 

their lances marks which are set up for 
them to ride at. Then comes fencing with their swords 
on horseback. Perhaps this is followed by a regular 
"tournament," in which knights, both old and new, 
ride against one another in mimic warfare. With 
closed helmets and lowered lances the knights charge 
at one anotiier. each seeking to unhorse his opponent. 
Lances are shattered, armor battered, and sometimes 
serious wounds are received in this rough sport ; while 



172 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

bright-eyed ladies sit besides the "lists," to inspire 
their knights to brave deeds in their honor. Then the 
day is wound up with a great feast, and music, and the 
distribution of presents. 

At last the guests depart ; and the new-made 
knights go off to bed, to dream of Saracens to be 
fought in the Holy Land, and dragons to be slain, and 
wicked knights to be encountered, — and, above all, of 
beautiful maidens to be rescued and served with 
loyalty and with love. 

So they dream the dreams of Chivalry. And, when 
they awaken, the better ones among them — but not all, 
alas ! — will seek to put tlieir dreams into action. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Imagine yourself a "page," and write a letter home telling 

of your life. 

2. Imagine yourself a "squire," and write an account of the 

siege of a castle. 

3. Read the description of the tournament in Scott's Ivanhoe, 

ch. vii, viii, ix. 

4. Let the girls find out what they can of the life of the ladies 

of the castle, and make a story out of that. (See Gautier, 
Chivalri), ch. x.) 

5. Describe the knighting of an imaginary "squire." 



XX 
LIFE OF THE VILLAGE 

Outline of Chapter 

How the knights wore supported; the three classes of society 
in the Middle Ages. 

Position of tlie peasants; the lord's "domain" and the "com- 
mons"; the three fields; the peasant's scattered strips. 

The peasants' payments to their lord; the "services" which 
they owe him. 

The peasants live in villages; their houses; their furniture; 
peasant food and clothing; contempt of the nobles for them; 
possibility of leaving their lord 's estate. 

OxE important thing about the life of the knights 
and squires has not yet been explained ; that is, how 
thev were supported. They neither culti- 

. How the 

vated the fields, nor manufactured articles knights were 

supported. 

for sale, nor engaged in commerce. How, 
then, were they fed and clothed, and furnislied with 
their expensive armor and horses? How, in short, was 
all this life of tiie castle kept up, — with its great 
buildings, its constant Avars, its costly festivals, and its 
idleness ? 

We may find the explanation of tiiis in the saying of 
a bishop who lived in the early part of the Middle 
Ages. 

"God,'' said he, "divided the human race from the 
beginning into three classes. These were, the priests, 
whose duty it was to pray and serve God; the l-7iights, 
whose duty it was to defend society; and the 
peasants, whose duty it Avas to till the soil and to 
support, by their ]al)or, the otlier classes." 

173 



174 



TEE STOBY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 



This, indeed, was the arrangement as it existed 
during the whole of the Middle Ages. The peasants, 
who tilled the .soil, together with the merchants and 
craftsmen of the towns, bore all the burden of 
supporting the more picturesque classes above them. 



AVOODL AJ>^0 




PLAN OF A VILLAGE 

The strips belonging to the lord's "domain" were usually scattered amid 
those held by his tenants, but for greater clearness they are here shown as 
If gathered into one place. 



The peasants were called "serfs" and ''villains," 
and their position was very curious. For several miles 
about the castle, all the land belonged to its lord, and 



LIFE OF TEE VILLAGE I75 

was called, in England, his '* manor. " He did not own 
the land outright, — for, as you know, he did homage 
and fealty for it to Ms lord or ''suzerain," 
and the latter in turn owed homage and Position of 

^ the peasants. 

fealty to his "suzerain," and so on up to 

the king. Neither did the lord of the castle keep 

all of the manor lands in his own hands. He did not 

wish to till the land himself, so most of it was divided 

up and tilled by peasants, wlio kept their shares as 

long as they lived, and passed them on to their children 

after them. As long as the peasants performed the 

services and made the payments which they owed to 

the lord, the latter could not rightfully turn them out 

of their land. 

The part of the manor which the lord kept in his 

own hands was called his "domain," and we shall see 

presently how this was used. In addition 

tiiere were certain parts which were used and com- 
mons. 
by the peasants as common pastures for 

their cattle and sheep; that is, they all had joint rights 

in this. Then there was the woodland, to which the 

peasants miglit each send a certain number of pigs to 

feed upon the beech nuts and acorns. Finally, there 

was the part of the manor which was given over to 

the peasants to till. 

This was usually divided into three great fields, 

without any fences, walls, or hedges about them. In 

one of these we should find wheat growing, 

or some other grain that is sown in the g^i^g*''"^ 

winter ; in another we should find a crop of 

some grain, such as oats, which requires to be sown in 

the spring; while in the third we should find no crop 

at all. The next year the arrangement would be 



176 J^^HE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

changed, and again the next year. In this way, each 
field bore winter grain one year, spring grain the next, 
and the third year it was plowed several times and 
allowed to rest to recover its fertility. While resting 
it was said to "lie fallow." Then the round was 
repeated. This wdiole arrangement was due to the 
fact that people in those days did not know as much 
about "fertilizers'' and "rotation of crops'' as we do 
now. 

The most curious arrangement of all was the waj^ 

the cultivated land %vas divided up. Each peasant had 

from ten to forty acres of land which he 

scattered cultivatcd ; and part of this lay in each of 

the three fields. But instead of lying all 

together, it was scattered about in long narrow strips, 

each containing about an acre, W' ith strips of unplow^ed 

sod separating the plowed strips from one another. 

This was a very unsatisfactory arrangement, because 

each peasant had to waste so much time in going from 

one strip to his next ; and nobody has ever been able 

to explain quite clearly how it; ever came about. But 

this is the arrangement w^hich prevailed in almost all 

civilized countries throughout the whole of the Middle 

Ages, and indeed in some places for long afterw^ard. 

In return for the land which the peasant held from 

his lord, he owed the latter many payments and many 

services. He paid fixed sums of money at 

The peasants' dift'crcnt timcs duriug the year : and if his 

payments. o i/ ^ 

lord or his lord's suzerain knighted his 
eldest son, or married off his eldest daughter, or w^ent 
on a crusade, or w^as taken captive and had to be 
ransomed, — then the peasant must pay an additional 
sum. At Easter and at other fixed times the peasant 



LIFE OF THE VILLAGE 



177 



brought a gift of eggs or chickens to his lord ; and he 
also gave the lord one or more of his lambs and pigs 
each year for the use of the pasture. At harvest time 
the lord received a portion of the grain raised on the 
peasant's land. In addition the peasant must grind 
his grain at his lord's mill, and pay the charge for this; 
he must also bake his bread in the great oven which 
belonged to the lord, and use his lord's presses in 
making his cider and wine, paying for each. 

These payments were sometimes burdensome enough, 




PEASANTS PLOWING 

but they were not nearly so burdensome as the services 
which the peasants owed their lord. All 
the labor of cultivating the lord's 3?®'.' 

° services. 

domain land was performed by them. 
They plowed it with their great clumsy plows and ox- 
teams ; they harrowed it, and sowed it, and weeded it, 
and reaped it ; and finally they carted the sheaves to 
the lord's barns and thrcslKMl them by beating with 
great jointed clubs or "Hails." And when the work 
was done, the grain belonged entirely to the lord. 
About two days a week were spent this way in working 
on the lord's domain; and the peasants conld only 
work on their own lands between times. In addition, 
if the lord decided to build new towers, or a new gate, 



178 



THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



or to erect new buildings in the castle, the peasants 
had to carry stone and mortar for the building, and 
help the paid masons in every way possible. 




IIAKKOWING 
The boy with the sliui,' is driviug away birds 

And, when the demands of their lord were, satisfied, 
there were still other demands made upon them; for 




r <? o«> 

THRESniXG WITR FLAILS 



every tenth sheaf of grain, and every tenth egg, 
chicken, lamb, pig, and calf, had to be given to the 
Church as "tithes." 



LIFE OF THE VILLAGE I79 

The peasants did not live scattered about the coun- 
try as our farmers do, but dwelt together in an open 
village. If we should take our stand there 
on a day in spring, we should see much to j^^^^^^nages. 
interest us. On the hilltop above is the 
lord's castle ; and near by is the parish church with the 
priest's house. In the distance are the green fields, 
cut into long narrow strips; and in them we see men 
plowing and harrowing with teams of slow-moving 
oxen, while women are busy with hooks and tongs 
weeding the growing grain. Close at hand in the 
village we hear the clang of the blacksmith's anvil, 
and the miller's song as he carries the sacks of grain 
and flour to and from the mill. Dogs are barking, 
donkeys are braying, cattle are lowing ; and through it 
all we hear the sound of little children at play or 
women singing at their work. 

The houses themselves were often little better than 
wooden huts thatched with straw or rushes, though 
sometimes they were of stone. Even at the 
best they were dark, dingy, and unhealth- ^heir^ 
ful. Chimneys were just beginning to be 
used in the :\nddle Ages for the castles of the great 
lords; but in the peasants' houses the smoke was 
usually allowed to escape through the doorway. The 
door was often made so that the upper half could be 
left open for this purpose while the lower half was 
closed. The cattle were usually housed under the 
same roof with the peasant's family; and in some parts 
of Europe this practice is still followed. 

AVithin the houses we should not find very much 
furniture. Here is a list of the things which one 
well-to-do family owned in the year 1345 : 



380 TEE STOFY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

2 feather beds, 15 lineu sheets, and 4 striped yellow counter- 
panes. 

l" hand-mill for grinding meal, a pestle and mortar for pounding 
grain, 2 grain chests, a kneading trough, and 2 ovens over 
which coals could be heaped for baking. 

2 iron tripods on which to hang kettles over the fire; 2 metal 
pots and 1 large kettle. 

1 metal bowl, 2 brass water jugs, 4 bottles, a copper box, a tin 
washtub, a metal warming-pan, 2 large chests, a box, a cup- 
board, 4 tables on trestles, a large table, and a bench. 

2 axes, 4 lances, a crossbow, a scythe, and some other tools. 

The food and clothiug of the peasant were coarse 
and simple, but were usually sufficient for his needs. 

At times, however, war or a succession of 
rnrcro*thrng. '^^^ seasons Avould bring famine upon a 

district. Then the suffering would be 
terrible; for there were no provisions saved up, and 
the roads were so bad and communication so difficult 
that it was hard to bring supplies from other regions 
where there w^as plenty. At such times, tlie peasants 
suffered most. They Avere forced to eat roots, herbs, 
and liie bark of trees; and often they died by hundreds 
for want of even such food. 

Thus you will see that the lot of the peasant was a 
hard one ; and it was often made still harder by the 

cruel contempt which the nobles felt for 

Contempt of 

nobles for tliosc wliom tlicy looKcd upou as base- 
born." The name "villains" w-as given 
the peasants because they lived in villages; but the 
nobles have handed down the name as a term of 
reproach. In a poem, wdiich was written to please the 
nobles no doubt, the writer scolds at the villain 
because he w^as too w^ell fed, and, as he says, "made 
faces" at the clergy. "Ought he to eat fish?" the 



LIFE OF TEE VILLAGE 181 

poet asks. "Let him eat thistles, l)riars, thorus, and 
straw, on Sunday, for fodder; and pea-husks during 
the week ! Let him keep watch all his days, and have 
trouble. Thus ought villains to live. Ought he to eat 
meats! He ought to go naked on all fours, and crop 
J'.erbs with the horned cattle in the fields!" 

Of course there were many lords who did not feel 
this way towards their peasants. Ordinarily the 
peasant was not nearly so badly off as the 

1 • 1 /-I 1 1 -r-. 1 1 Possibility- 

slave in the Greek and Koman days; and of leaving the 

_„ loid's estate. 

often, perhaps, he was as well off as many 
of the- peasants of Europe today. But there was this 
difference between his position and that of the peasant 
now. Many of them could not leave their lord's 
manors, and move elsewhere, without their lord's per- 
mission. If they did so, their lord could pursue them, 
and bring them back. If, however, they succeeded in 
getting to a free town, and dwelt there for a year and 
a day without being re-captured, then they became 
freed from their lord, and might dwell where they 
chose. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Make a list of the ways in wliicli the farming of the Middlo 

Ages differed from that of the United States today. 

2. How do you suppose the cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese \\-ere 

prevented from straying into the cultivated fields, in 
the absence of fences and hedges? 
I). Why did the jieasants live in villages, instead of in scat- 
tered farmhouses ? 

4. What can you learn concerning the cooking arrangements of 

the Middle Ages, from the list of household possessions 
on p. 180, and from the fact that all the bread for the 
village was baked in one great oven? 

5. Would you be likely to find any stores in a village of the 

Middle Agesf Give reasons for your answer. 



XXI 
LIFE OF THE TOWN 

Outline of Chapter 

Decay of towns after the coining of the Germans; gradual 
growth of better conditions. 

Revival of towns in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth cen- 
turies; the towns in Italy, in Germany, and in France; what 
the towns did for the world. 

Privileges of the towns; their rights of self-government; strug- 
gles within the towns; their independence finally lost. 

Life in the towns; the walls, streets, and houses; shops and 
workmen; the "apprentices"; the "guilds"; the "cathe- 
dral"; the bell-tower. 

The great fairs of the Middle Ages; a busy street scene. 

We must now consider tlio life of the towns during 
the Middle Ages. 

The Germans had never lived in cities in their old 

homes; so, when they came into the Roman Empire, 

they preferred the free life of the country 

Decay of "^ ^ . '' 

towns under to Settling withiu towu walls. The old 

German rule. 

Roman cities, which had sprung up all 
over the Empire, had already lost much of their impor- 
tance ; and under these country-loving conquerors they 
soon lost what was left. In many places the inhahi- 
tants entirely disappeared ; other places decreased in 
size ; and all lost the rights which they had had of 
governing themselves. 

The inhabitants of the towns became no better off 
than the peasants wlio lived in the little villages. In 
l)oth, the people lived by tilling the soil. In both, the 
lord of the district made laws, appointed officers, and 

182 



LIFE OF TEE TOWN 183 

settled disputes in his own court. There was little 
difference, indeed, between the villages and towns, 
except a difference in size. 

This was the condition of things during the early- 
part of the Middle Ages, while feudalism was slowly- 
arising, and the nobles were beating back the attacks 
of the Mohammedans, the Hungarians, and the North- 
men. 

At last, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, as we 
have seen, this d-anger was overcome. Now men might 
travel from place to place, witliout con- 
stant danger of being robbed or slain, better 

^. , ,. , 1 , conditions. 

(commerce and manuractures began to 
spring up again, and the people of the towns supported 
themselves by these, as well as by agriculture. AVith 
commerce and manufactures, too, came riches. This 
was especially true in Italy and Southern France, 
where the townsmen were able, by their geographical 
position, to take part in the trade with Constantinople 
and Egypt ; and, also, to gain money by carrying 
pilgrims and Crusaders, in their ships, to the Holy 
Land. Some German cities also, especially Augsburg 
and Nil ruber g, grew rich on the commerce which 
flowed from Venice over the Alps, and along the tribu- 
taries of the Danu])e and Rhine, into the heart of 
Germany. AVith riches came power; and, with power, 
came the desire to free themselves from the rule of 
their lord. 

So, all over civilized Europe, during the eleventh, 
twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, we find new towns 
arising and old ones getting the right to govern them- 
selves. 

In Italy the towns gained power first : then in South- 



184 



THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



Revival 
of towns. 



ern France; then in Northern France; and then along 
the valley of the river Rhine, and the coasts of the 
Baltic Sea.^Sometimes the towns bought 
their freedom from their lords; sometimes 
they won it after long struggles, and much 
fighting. Sometimes the nobles and the clergy were 
wise enough to join with the townsmen, and share in 
the benefits which the town brought ; sometimes they 
fought them foolishly and bitterly-N 
^In German}^ and in Italy, the power of th e kings was 




A GEUMAN ( ITV 



not great enough to make inucli difference one way or 
the other. Tn France , the kings favored the tOAvns 
against their lords, and used them to break down the 
power of the feudal nobles. Then, when the king's 
poAver had become so strong that they no longer feared 
the nobles, they checked the power of tiie towns, lest 
they in turn might become powerful and independent?) 

Tluis, in different Avays and at different times, th^Ve 
grew up the cities of mediaeval Europe. 

In Italy, there sprang up the free cities of Venice, 



LIFE OF TEE TOWN 



185 



Florence, Pisa, Genoa, and others, where scholars and 
artists were to arise and bring a new birth to learning 
and art; where, also, daring seamen were > 

to be trained, like Colniuhus, ('a])ot, and |f{°"''^ 1/ 
Vespucius, to discover, in later times, the ^^^ ^^^^^' 
New World. In France, the citizens showed their 
skill by building those beautiful Gothic cathedrals, 
which are still so much admired. In the towns of Ger- 
many and Holland, clever workmen invented and de- 
veloped the art of printing, and so made possible the 
learning and education of today. 

The civilization of modern times, indeed, owes a 
great debt to these old towns, and to their sturdy 
inhabitants. 

Let us see, now, what those privileges Avere which 
the townsmen got, and which enabled them to help on 
the world's progress so much. To us these 
privileges would not seem so verv sreat Privileges i 

T , , -, „ J to • obtained / 

In imndreds of towns in France the lords t^wns? ^ 

granted only such rights as the folloAving: 

1. The townsmen shall pay oidy small fixed sums 
for the rent of their lands, and as a tax Avhen they sell 
goods, etc. 

2. They shall not be obliged to go to Avar for their 
lord, unless they' can return tlie same day, if they 
choose. 

3. AVhen they have laAv-suits, the tOAvnsmen shall 
not be obliged to go outside the toAvn to have them 
tried. 

4. No charge shall be made for the use of the toAvn 
oven ; and the toAvnsmen may gather the dead Avood in 
the lord's forest for fuel. 

5. The toAvnsmen shall be alloAved to sell their 



186 ^'-ZZii STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 




CATHKnUAI. OF COLOGNE 



LIFE OF THE TOWN 187 

property when they wish, and leave the town without 
hindrance from the lord. 

6. Any peasant who remains a year and a day in the 
town, without being claimed by his lord, shall be free. 

In other places the townsmen got, in addition, the 
right to elect their own judges ; and, in still others, 
they got the right to elect all their officers. 

Towns of this latter class were sometimes called 
"communes.'' Over them the lord had very little 
right, except to receive such sums of money „, . . ^^ 

° ' '^ . . _ Their rights 

as it Avas agreed should be paid to him. In of self- 

government. 

some places, as in Italy, these communes 
became practically independent, and had as much 
power as the lords themselves. They made laws, and 
coined money, and had their vassals, and waged war 
just as the lords did. But there was this important 
difference : in the communes the rights belonged to the 
citizens as a whole, and not to one person. This made 
all the citizens feel an interest in the town affairs, and 
produced an enterprising, determined spirit among 
them. At the same time, the citizens were trained in 
the art of self-government, in using tliese rights. In 
this way, the world was being prepared for a time 
when governments like ours — "of the people, for the 
people, and by the people," — should be possible. 

But this was to come only after many, many years. 
The townsmen often used their power selfishly, and in 
the interest of their own families and their „ 

struggles 

own class. Often the rich and powerful within the 

towns. 

townsmen were as cruel and harsh toward 
the poorer and weaker classes as the feudal lords them- 
selves. Fierce and bitter struggles often broke out in 
the towns, between the citizens who had power and 



188 'l"UJ^' STOh'Y OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

those who had none. Often, too, there were great 
family quai'rels, continued from generation to 
generation, like the one which is told of in Shake- 
speare's play, "Romeo and Juliet." 

In Italy there came, in time, to be two great parties, 
called the "Guelfs" and the "(Jhil)ellines." At first 
there was a real difference in views between them; but, 
by and by, they became mei'ely two rival factions. 
Then Guelfs were known from Ghibelliues by the waj'' 
they cut their fruit at table ; by the color of roses they 
wore ; by the way they yawned, and spoke, and were 
clad. Often the struggles and brawls in a city became 
so fierce that, to get a little peace, the townsmen would 
call in an outsider, to rule over them for a while. 

With the citizens so divided among themselves, it 

will not surprise you to learn that the communes 

everywhere, at last, lost their independ- 

Their mi 

independence encc. Tlicv passcd uudcr the Yulo, of the 

lost. . ■ 

Knig, as ni Fi-ance ; or else, as happened in 
Italy, they fell into tlie power of some "tyrant" or 
local lord. 

But let us tiiink, not of the weaknesses and mistakes 

of these old townsmen, but of their earnest, busy life, 

and its quaint surroundings. Imagine your- 

thl^owns. ^^^^ ^ peasant lad, fleeing from your lord, 

or coming for the first time to the market 

in a mediaeval town. 

As we approach the city gates, we see that the walls 
are strong, and are crowned with turrets. The gate is 
defended with drawbridge and portcullis, like the 
entrance to a castle. AVithiii. are narrow, winding 
streets, with rows of tall-roofed houses, each with its 
garden attached. The houses themselves are niore like 



LIFE OF THE TOWN 



189 



our houses today than like the Greek and Roman ones ; 
for they have no courtyard in the interior and are sev- 
eral stories high. The roadways are often 
unjiaved, and full of nuul ; and there are no streets and 

T f> 111 f houses. 

sewers. li you walk tlie streets after 
nightfall, you must carry a torch to light your foot- 
steps, for there are no street-lamps. There are no 
policemen ; but if 
you are out after 
dark, you must be- 
ware of the "city 
watch." who take 
turns in guarding 
the city, for they 
will make you give 
a strict account of 
yourself. 

Now, liowever, it 
is day. and we need 
have no fear. Pres- 
ently we come into 
tlie business parts 
of the city, and 
there we find the 
different trades 
grouped together in 
different streets. 
Here are the gold- 
smiths, and there are the tanners; here the cloth mer- 
chants, and there th(> butchers; here the ,, 

Shops and 

armor-smiths, and there the money-chang- workmen, 
ers. The shops are all small and on the ground floor, 
with their M^ares i^xposed for sale in the open windows. 




/» ^"1 






A smip IN THE ^iiudlk .\(;k.s 



190 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Ijot US look in at one of the goldsmiths' shops, 'The 
shop-keeper and his wife are busily engaged, waiting 
on customers and inviting passers-by to stop and 
examine their goods. Within we sec several men and 
boys at work, making the goods which their master 
sells. There the gold is melted and refined; the right 
amount of alloy is mixed with it; then it is cast, 
beaten, and filed into the proper shape. Then, perhaps, 
the article is enameled, and jewels are set in it. 

All of these things are done in this one little shop ; 
and so it is for each trade. The workmen must all 
begin at the beginning, and start with the rough 
material; and the '.'apprentices," as the boys are 
called, must learn each of the processes by which the 
raw material is turned into the finished article. 

Thus, a long term of apprenticeship is necessary for 
each trade; lasting sometimes for ten years. During 

this time, the boys are fed, clothed, and 
apprentices, lodged witli their master's family, above 

the sliop, and receive no pay. If they mis- 
behave, the master has the right to punish them; and 
if they run away, he can pursue them and bring them 
back. Their life, however, is not so hard as that of the 
peasant boys, for they are better fed and housed, and 
have more to look forward to. 

When their apprenticeship is finished, they will be- 
come full members of the "guild" of their trade, and 

may work for whomever they please. For 
gufidl!^*^* a wliile tliey may wander from city to city, 

working now for this master and now for 
that. In each city they will find the workers of their 
trade all united together into a guild, with a charter 
from the king, or other lord, which permits them to 



LIFE OF TEE TOWN 19]^ 

make rules for tlie carrying on of that business, and 
to shut out all persons from it who have not served a 
regular apprenticeship. So, in each important town, 
there were ''craft guilds" of stone-cutters, plasterers, 
carpenters, blacksmiths, weavers, and the like, as well 
as a "merchant guild," composed of those who traded 
to other places. 

The more ambitious boys will not l)e content with a 
mere workman's life. They will look forward to a 
tune when they shall have saved up money enough to 
start- in business for themselves. Then they too will 
become masters, with workmen and apprentices under 
them ; and perhaps, in course of time, if they grow in 
wealth and wisdom, they may be elected rulers over 
the city. 

Let us leave the shops of the workers and pass on. 
As we wander about we find many churches and chap- 
els; and perhaps we come, after a while, to a great 
"cathedral" or bishop's church, rearing its 
lofty roof to the sky. No ])ains have been The 

' cathedral 

spared to make this as grand and imposing ^•'"'•ch. 
as possible; and we gaze upon its great height with 
awe, and wonder at tlie marvelously quaint and clever 
patterns in which the stone is carved. 

We leave this, also, after a time ; and then we come 
to the "belfry" or town-hall. This is the real center 
of the life of the city. Here is the strong 
square tower, like the "donjon" of a t^^er^*" 
castle, where the townsmen may make their 
last stand, in case an enemy succeeds in entering their 
walls, and they cannot beat him back in their narrow 
streets. 

On top of the tower is the bell, witli watchmen always 



192 



THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



Oil tlie lookout to give the signal, iu ease of fire or other 
danger. The bell is also used for more peaceful pur- 
poses. It summons the citizens, from time to time, to 
public meetings. Also, every night at eight or nine 
o'clock, it sounds the "curfew" (French couvre feu, 
"cover fire") as a signal to cover the fire with ashes, 
and cease from the day's labors. 

Within the tower are dungeons for prisoners and 




IIUTEENTH CENTURY 



meeting rooms for the rulers of the city. There, also, 
are strong rooms, where the city money is kept, to- 
gether with the great seal of the city. Lastly, there 
too is the charter which gives the city its liberties — 
the most precious of all the city's possessions. 

Even in ordinary times the city presents a bustling, 
busy appearance. . If it is a city which holds a fair, 
once or twice a year, what shall we say of it then? 



LIFE OF THE TOWN 193 

For several weeks, at such times, the city is one vast 
bazaar. Strange merchants come from all parts of the 
land and set up their booths and stalls along 
the streets, and the city shops are crowded J^^irs^"^^** 
with goods. For miles about, the people 
throng in to buy the things which they need. 
"Opposite is a picture of the streets of a city during 
fair-time, in the thirteenth century. In the middle of 
the picture, we see a townsman and his wife /^ 

returning home after making their pur- f^^eet^scen ^'^ 
chases. Behind them are a knight and his 
attendant, on liorsel)ack, picking their way through the 
crowd. On the right liand side of the street is the shop 
of a clotli morchant ; and we see tlie merchant and his 
wife showing goods to customers, while workmen are 
unpacking a bo.x in the street. Next door is a tavern, 
with its sign hung out ; and near this we see a cross, 
which some pious person has erected at the street cor- 
ner. ' On the left-hand side of the street, we see a 
cripple begging for alms. Back of him is another cloth- 
merchant 's shop; and next to this is a money-changer's 
table, where a group of people are having money 
weighed, to see that there is no cheating in the pay- 
ment. Beyond this is an elevated stage, on which a 
company of tumblers and juggU'rs are performing, 
with a crowd of people about them. In the background 
we see some tall-roofed houses, topped with turrets; 
and beyond these we can just make out the spire of a 
church rising to the sky. 

This is, indeed, a busy scene, and it is a picture which 
we nuiy carry away with us. It well shows the energy 
and the activity which, during the later Middle Ages, 



194 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

made the towns the starting-place for so many im- 
portant movements. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Make a list of the things which caused the decline of the 

towns at the beginning of the Middle Ages. 

2. Make another list of the things whicli helped their growth 

in numbers, wealth, and powers of self government. 

3. Locate Pisa, Florence, Genoa, and Venice. Why were these 

the first towns to gain their independence? 

4. Why did cities of Germany (like Augsburg and Niirnberg) 

and those of Northern France (like Bruges) follow next 
in developmoiit after those of Italy? 

5. Imagine yourself an api)rentice lad, and write an account 

of your life. 

6. Write a letter describing an imaginary ^isit to a fair in 

the Midtlle Ages 




XXII 
LIFE OF THE MONASTERY 

Outline of Chapter 

Why men became monks; the "rule" of St. Benedict; dress 

of the monks; "friars" and "nuns." 
The monastery buildinj^s and lands; jilan of a German monaster}'. 
Hours for worsliip; labors and humility of the monks; they 

copy books; their services to education; histories written by 

the monks. 
The three vows taken by a monk; enforcement of the rules; 

how one became a monk; a letter from a "novice." 

In tlie last three chapters we liave studied the lile 
of the castle, of the village, and of the town. We must 
now see what life in a monastery was like. 

In the Middle Ages, men thought that storms and 
lightning, famine and sickness, were signs of the wrath 
of God, or were the work of evil spirits. 
The world was a terrible place to them, and ^^^ '"^" , 

'■ ' became monks. 

the wickedness and misery with which it 
was filled made them long to escape from it. Also, 
they felt that God was pleased when they voluntarily 
led lives of hardship and self-denial, for his sake. So, 
great numbers of men went out into the desert places 
and became hermits or monks, in order that they 
might better serve God and save their own souls. 

Soon the separate monks drew together and formed 
monasteries, or groups of monks living in communi- 
ties, according to certain rules. A famous 
monk named Benedict drew up a series of of st. 

, „ , . . Benedict. 

rules tor his monastery m Italy (529 
A.D.), and these served the purpose so well that they 

195 



196 2\ff^ STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

were adopted for many others. In course of time all 
the monasteries of AYestern Europe were put under 
"the Benedictine rule," as it was called. 

The dress of the monks was of coarse woolen cloth, 
with a cowl or hood which could be pulled up to pro- 
tect the head ; and about the waist a cord 
?he^monks. "^^'^^ wom for a girdle. The gown of the 
Benedictines was usually black, so they 
were called ''black monks." As the centuries went by, 
new orders of monks were founded, Avith new rules; 
but these usually took the "rule" of St. Benedict, and 
merely changed it to meet new conditions. In this way 
arose "white monks," and monks of other names. 

In addition, orders of "friars" were founded, espe- 
cially by St. Francis and by St. Dominic. These were 
like the monks in many ways, but liA-ed 
Friars Hiorc ju tlic world, prcaching, teachine-. 

and nuns. ' -i »' 

and caring for the sick. The friars also 
were called "black friars," "gray friars," or "white 
friars," according to the color of their dress. 

Besides the orders for m.en, there were also orders of 
"nuns" for Avomen. St. Scholastica, the friend of St. 
Benedict, and St. Clara, the friend of St. Francis, were 
the founders of two important orders of nuns. In some 
places in the ]\Iiddle Ages nunneries became almost as 
common as monasteries. 

Let us try, now, to see what a Benedictine monastery 

was like. One of Benedict's rules provided that every 

monastery • should be so arranged that 

p.® P°°*^*"y everything the monks needed would be in 

1)uildings. ■' " 

the monastery itself, and there would be 
no need to wander about outside; "for this," said 
Benedict, "is not at all good for tlieir souls." Each 



LIFE OF THE MONASTERY 



197 



monastery, therefore, became a settlement complete in 
itself. It not only had its halls, Avhere the monks ate 
and slept, and its own church ; it had also its own mill, 
its own bake-oven, and its own workshops, where the 
monks made the things wdiich they needed. 




A GERMAN MONASTERY 



The better to shut out the world, and to protect the 

monastery against robbers, the buildings were sur- 

I'ounded by a strong wall. Outside of this 

te^ry Tan"(fs^.' ''^.^ ^^^^ ficlds of tile luonastcry, where the 

monks themselves raised the grain they 

needed, or which were tilled for them by peasants, in 

the same way that the lands of the lords were tilled. 

Finally, there was the woodland, where the swine Avere 

herded ; and the pasture lands, where the cattle and 

sheep were sent to graze. 

The amount of land b{>louging to a monastery was 



198 



TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



often quite large. Nobles and kings frequently gave 
gifts of land, and the monks in return prayed for their 
souls. Often, when the land came into tiie possession 
of the monks, it was covered with swamps or forests. 
But by unwearying labor the swamps were drained and 
the forests felled, and soon smiling fields appeared 
where before there was only a wilderness. 

On page 197 is the picture of a German monastery, at 

the close of the Middle Ages. There we see the strong 

wall, surrounded by a ditch, inclosing the 

German buildings and protecting the monastery 

monastery. ' . i • i 

trom attack. To enter the mclosure, we 
must cross the bi-idge and present ourselves at the gate. 
When we have passed this, we see to the left stables 

for cattle and horses, 
while to the right are 
gardens of herbs for 
the cure of the sick. 
Near by is the 
monks' graveyard, 
with the graves 
marked by little 
crosses. 

In the center of 
the inclosure are 
workshops, where 
the monks work at different trades. The tall building, 
with the spires crowned with the figures of saints, is 
the church, where the monks hold services at regular 
intervals, throughout the day and night. 

Adjoining this, in the form of a square, are the build- 
ings in which the monks sleep and eat. This is the 
"cloister," and it is the principal part of the monastery. 
In southern lands, this inner square or cloister was 




A FRENCH CLOISTEK 



LIFE OF TEE MONASTERY 199 

usually surrounded on all sides by a porch or piazza, 
the roof of which was supported on long rows of pil- 
lars; and here the monks might pace to and fro, in 
quiet talk, when the duties of worship and labor did 
not occupy their time. 

In addition to these buildings, there are many others, 
which we cannot stop to describe. Some are used to 
carry on the work of the monastery ; some are for the 
use of the abbot, who is the ruler of the monks ; some 
are hospitals for the sick ; and some are guest chambers, 
where travellers are lodged over night. 

In addition to these buildings, there are many others, 
undisturbed all the night through. It was not so 
with the monks. 

They must begin their worship long l)efore the sun 
was up. Soon after midnight, the bell of the monas- 
tery rings, the monks rise from their hard 
beds and gather in the church, to recite "orswp^.""^ 
prayers, read portions of the Bible, and 
sing psalms. Not less than twelve of the psalms of 
the Old Testament must be read each night, at this 
service. At day-break, again the bell rings, and once 
more the monks gather in the church. This is the first 
of the seven services which are held during the day. 
The others come at seven o'clock in the morning, at 
nine o'clock, at noon, at three in the afternoon, at six 
o'clock, and at bed-time. At each of these, there -are 
prayers, reading from the Scriptures, and chanting of 
psalms. Latin was the only language used in the 
church services of the AVest in the Middle Ages; so the 
Bible was read, the psalms sung, and the pra^-'ers re- 
cited in this tongue. The services are so arranged 



200 



TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



that in the course of every week the entire Psalter, 
or psalm book, is gone through ; then, at the Sunday 
night service, they begin again. 

Besides attending these services, there are many other 

things which the monks must do; for "idleness." 

wrote St. Benedict, "is the enemy of the 

Labors and i , , t t i / /^ i i 

humility of soul. It was arranged that, at nxed hours 

(luring the day, the monks should labor with 

their hands. Some plowed the fields, harrowed them, and 

planted and harvest- 
ed the grain. Others 
worked at various 
trades in the work- 
shops of the monas- 
teries. If any brother 
s h owed too much 
l)ride in his work, 
and put himself 
above the others be- 
cause of his skill, he 
was made to work at 
something else. The 
monks must be hum- 
ble at all times. "A monk," said Benedict, "must al- 
ways show humility, — not only in his heart, but with his 
body also. This is so whether he is at work, or at 
prayer; whether he is in the monastery, in the garden, 
in the road, or in the fields. Everywhere, — sitting, 
walking, or standing, — let liiiu always be with head 
bowed, his looks fixed upon llie ground ; and let liini re- 
member every hour that he is guilty of his sins." 

One of the most usefid lMl)()rs which the mediu'val 
monks performed was the cojjving and writing oF l)o()ks. 




A MOXK roi'Yixr; ikmik 



LIFE OF THE MONASTEEY 



201 




At certain liours of the day, especially on Sundays, 
the brothers were required by Benedict's rule to read 
and to study. In the Middle Ages, of 

course, there were no printing "^'"^ '"""'^^ 

^ *^ copy books. 

presses, and all books Avere 
"manuscript,"— that is, they were copied, 
a letter at a time, by hand. So, in (^ach 

well - regulated 
monastery, 
there was 
a writing-room, 
or "scrip-' 
torium," where 
some of the 
monks worked 
at copying man- 
uscripts. 

T h e writing- 
was u s u a 1 1 y 
done on skins of 
pare h m c n t. 
These the 
m o n k s cut to 
the size of the 
page, rubbing 



the surface smooth Avith pumice stone. 

^ . Then the margins were marked, and the 

lines ruled, with sharp awls. The writing 

was done with pens made of quills or of 

^ -* reeds, and with ink made of soot mixed 

with gum and acid. 

The greatest care was used in forming each letter, 
and at the beginning of the chapters a large initial was 



Tlio plctiiro Kliows a nutnbor of 
youiii; iiion receiving the "ton- 
sure" — that is, having the hair 
olipped from the ton of their 
lieails as a j:ign that they are to 
become priests. 



202 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

made. Sometimes .these initials were really pictures, 
beautifully "illuiniuatcd" iu blue, gold, and crimson. 
All this required skill and much pains. 

''He who does not know how to write," wrote a 
monk at the end of one manuscript, "imagines that it 
is no labor; but, though only three fingers hold the 
pen, the whole body grows weary." And another one 
wrote: "I pray you, good readers who may use this 
book, do not forget him who copied it. It was a poor 
brother, named Louis, who, while he copied the volume 
(which was brought from a foreign country) endured 
the cold, and was obliged to finish in the night what he 
could not write by day." 

The monks by copying books did a great service to 
the world, for it was in tliis way tliat many valuable 
works were preserved during the Dark Ages, when vio- 
lence and ignorance spread, and the love of learning 
had almost died out. 

In other ways, also, the monks helped the cause of 
learning. At a time when no one else took the trouble, 
or knew how, to write a history of the 
^o'educatlon^' tilings that Avcrc going on, the monks in 
most of the great monasteries wrote "an- 
nals" or "chronicles" in which events were each year 
set down. And at a time when there were no schools 
except those provided ])y the Church, the monks taught 
boys to read and to write, so tlisit there might always 
be learned men to carry on the work of religion. The 
education which they gave, and the books which they 
wrote, were of course in Latin, like the services of 
the Church ; for this was the only language of edu- 
cated men. 



LIFE OF THE MONASTEEY 203 

The histories which the monks wrote were, no (loiil)t, 
very poor ones, and the schools were not very good; 
but they were ever so much better than . 

•^ . Histories 

none at all. Here is what a monk wrote in written 

by monks. 

the "annals" of his monastery, as the his- 
tory of the year 807 ; it will show us something about 
both the histories written at that time, and the schools : 

"807. Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, died; and 
there was great sickness in the monastery of St. Boni- 
face, so that many of the younger brothers died. The 
boys of the monastery school beat their teacher, and 
ran away." 

That is all we are told. Were the boys just unruly 
and naughty ? Did they rebel at the tasks of school, at 
a time when Charlemagne was waging his mighty wars; 
and did they long to become knights and warriors, in- 
stead of priests and monks? Or was it on account of 
the sickness that they ran away ? We cannot tell. That 
is the way it is with many things in the IMiddle Ages. 
Most of what we know about the history of that time 
we learn from the "chronicles" kept by the monks, 
and these do not tell us nearly all that we should like 
to know. 

The three most important things which were re- 
quired of the monks were that they should have no 
property of their own, that they should not 

, 1 1 T • 1 , Three vows 

marry, and that they should obey those ^^^^^ 
who were placed over them. "A monk," 
said Benedict, "should have absolutely nothing, neither 
a book, nor a tablet, nor a pen." Even the clothes 
which they wore were the property of the monastery. 
If any gifts were sent them by their friends or relatives, 



204 2'-^^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

they luust turn them over to the abbot, for tlie use ol' 
the monastery as a whole. 

Tlie rule of obedience required that a monk, wlien 
ordered to (U) a tiling, should do it without delay; and 
if impossible things were commanded, he must at least 
make the attempt. 

The rule about marrying Avas ('(jually strict; and in 
some monasteries it was counted a sin even to look 
upon a woman. 

Other rules forbade the monks to talk, at certain 
times of the day and in their sleeping halls. For fear 
lest they might forget themselves at the table, St. 
Benedict ordered that one of the brethren should 
always read aloud, at meals, from some holy book. All 
were required to live on tlie simplest and plaim^st food. 

The rules, indeed, were so strict that it was often 
difficult to enforce them, especially after the monas- 
teries became rich and powerful. Then, 
of" the ^ althougii the monks might not have any 

rules. (. 1 • ■ T ' 

property ot then- own, they enjoyed vast 
riches belonging to the monastery as a whole, and often 
lived in luxury and idleness. When this happened, 
there was usually a reaction, and new orders arose 
with stricter and stricter rules. So, we have times of 
•zeal and strict enforcement of the rules, followed by 
periods of decay; and these, in turn, followed by new 
periods of strictness. This Avent on to the close of tlie 
]\riddle Ages, when many of the monasteries Avere done 
away with. 

AViien any one wished to become a monk, he had 
first to go through a trial. He must becoane a "novice" 
and live in a monastery, under its rules, for a year; 
then, if he was still of the same mind, he took the vows 



LIFE OF THE MONASTEBY 



205 



of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience. ''From tliat day 
forth," says the rule of St. Benedict, "he shall not be 
allowed to depart from the monastery, nor to shake 
from his neck the yoke of the rule; for, after so long 
delay, he Avas at liberty either to receive it or to n° 
fuse it." 

"When the monasteries had become corrupt, some men 
no doubt became monks in order that tliey might live 
in idleness and luxury. But let us tiiink rather of 
the many men who l)eeame monks because they be- 
lieved that this Avas the best way to serve God. 

Let us think, in closing, of one of the best of the 
monasteries of the .Aliddle Ages, and let us look at its 
life through the eyes of a noble young novice. The 
monastery was in France, and its abbot. St. Bernard, 
was famous throughout the Christian world, in the 
twelfth century, for his piety and zeal. Of this mon- 
astery the novice writes : 

"I watch the monks at their daily services, and at 
their nightly vigils from midnight to tiie dawn; and 
as I hear them singing so holily and un- 
wearyingly, they sccin to me more like better of 

, , a novice. 

angels than men. Some ol" them have been 
bishops or rulers, or else have been famous for their 
rank and knowledge; now all are equal, and no one is 
higher or lower than any other. I see them in the gar- 
dens with the hoe, in the meadows with fork and rake, 
in the forests with the ax. When I remember what 
they have been, and consider their present condition 
and work, their poor and ill-made clothes, my heart 
tells me that they are not the dull and speeeldess beings 
they seem, but that their life is hid with Christ in the 
heavens. 



206 7'FE STOBY OF THE MTT)T)LE AGES 

"FarcAvell! God willing:, on the next Sunday after 
Ascension Day, I too sliall put on the armor of my 
profession as a monk!" 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Make a list of the ways in which the monks helped the 

world. 

2. Why do not so many persons become monks and nuns now, 

as in the Middles Ages? 



XXIII 
TRIUMPH OF PAPACY OVER EMPIRE 

Outline of Chapter 

Decline of the Papacy and the Empire after Charlemagne; 

Otto I. revives the Empire (962). 
Early life of the monk Hildebrand; evils in the Church; the 

monks of Cluny fight them; Hildebrand becomes Pope, and 

takes the name Gregory VII. 
The Emperor Henry IV.; liis investiture quarrel with Gregory 

VII.; Gregory excommunicates Henry; Henry submits at 

Canossa (1077); the struggle continued; settlement of 

investiture struggle. 

We have seen, in an earlier chapter, how the bishop 
of Rome became the head of the Western Church, with 
the title of Pope. We have also seen how Charlemagne 
restored the position of Emperor, as ruler of the West. 
We must now follow the history of these two great in- 
stitutions, — the Papacy and the Empire, — and see how 
they got along together. 

After Gi-egory the Great died, it was long before the 
Church had a Pope who equaled him in ability and 
goodness. And after Charlemagne was 
dead, it was long before there was an- Empire after 

Charlemagne. 

other Lmperor as strong as he had been. 
Charlemagne's empire was divided by his grand- 
sons, as we have seen, into three kingdoms, and though 
the oldest of these received the title of Emperor, he 
had little of Charlemagne's power. Afterwards, the 
rule of these "Carolingians," or descendants of 
Charlemagne, grew weaker and weaker, until finally 

207 



208 



TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



their power came entirely to an end. AYe have al- 
ready seen (p. 120) how their rule ceased in France 
and the power passed to the family of that Count Odo 
who defended Paris so bravely against the Northmen 
in the year 886. In Italy and in Germany also, at 
about the same time, the rule of the Carolingians 
ceased, and new rulers arose. 

In Germany, it was the Saxons, whom Charlemagne 
had conquered with so much difficulty, who then took 
the leading part in the government. A new and 
stronger German kingdom was established, and soon 
one of these Saxon kings — Otto I., who was rightly 
called Otto the Great — gained the 
rule over Italy also. AVhen this 
was done, he revived the title of 
Emperor, which meant something 
more than King. It meant not only 
the rule over Italy and Germany, 
but also a supremacy over all the 
kings of AVestern Europe, such as 
Charlemagne had exercised. This 
occurred in the year 962. Otto had 
already been King for twenty-six 
years, and he ruled for twelve years longer, proving 
to be as great a ruler as Emperor as he had been as 
King. 

One of the first things that Otto did in Italy was to 
put the Papacy in a better condition. During the trou- 
bled times that had folloAved the fall of ^^^^ j 
Charlemagne's empire, Italian nobles op- Hoi'rRomln 
pressed the popes and even attempted to set ^"^^"^ ^^^^^' 
them up and pull them doAvn at pleasure. The Papacy 
had no army of its own, and when there was no one who 




RINC > ,, ..i OTTO I 

(Sl)owing au ul«l spelling 
of the name) 



TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 209 

was acknowledged as Emperor there was no one to 
whom the Pope could turn for aid. When Otto I. re- 
vived the Empire, it became his duty to protect the 
Pope. After many efforts the emperors succeeded in 
taking from the Italian nobles their power, and soon 
the position of the Pope was higher than it had even 
been. 

Then the question arose as to what then' relation 
should be to the emperors. 

Just one hundred years after the death of Otto I., a 
man became Pope who had very decided opinions on 
this subject. His name was Hildehrand. 
He was the son of a poor carpenter, and f/n^i^e^brand. 
was born in Italy, but he was of German 
origin. His uncle was the head of a monastery at 
Rome, and it was there that the boy was brought up 
and educated. When he grew to manhood he too be- 
came a monk. Circumstances soon led him to France, 
and there for a while he was a member of the most, 
famous monastery of Europe — the one at Cluny, in 
Burgundy. 

Not only the Papacy, but the whole Church, had 
fallen into a bad condition at this time. ]\Ionks had 
ceased to obey the rules made for their 
government, and lived idly and often fht^church. 
wickedly. Priests and bishops, instead of 
giving their attention to the cliurclies wliieh were under 
their care, spent their time, like the nobles of that day, 
in hunting, in pleasure, and in war. 

There were three evils which were especially com- 
plained of. 

First, priests, bishops, and even popes often got tlieir 



210 TRE UTOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

offices by purchase instead of being freely elected or 
appointed; this was called simony. 

Second, the greater part of the clergy had followed 
the example of the Eastern Church and married, so 
breaking the rule of celibacy, which required that they 
should not marry. This was especially harmful, be- 
cause the married clergy sought to provide for their 
children by giving them lands and other property, 
which belonged to the Church. 

The third evil was the "investiture" of clergymen 
by "laymen," that is, by persons who were not clergy- 
men. AVhen a bishop, for example, was chosen he was 
sometimes "invested," that is, given the ring and the 
staff which were the signs of his office, by the Em- 
peror or King, instead of l)y another bishop, as was 
required by the rules of the Church. This investiture 
by laymen made the clergy feudal vassals of the lord 
who invested them, and the result was that they looked 
more to the rulers of the land for guidance than to the 
rulers of the Church. 

The monastery of Cluny took the leading part in 

fighting these evils. Its abbots joined to Cluny other 

monasteries, which were then purified and 

Monks of ... ^, 

Cluny reformed, and in this way Cluny became the 

them. head of a "congregation" or union of mon- 

asteries, which numbered many hundreds. Everywhere 
it raised the cry, "No simony; — celibacy; — and no lay 
investiture !" 

When Ilildebrand came to Cluny, this movement had 
been going on for some time, and much good had al- 
ready been accomplished. But it was through his ef- 
forts that the movement was to win its greatest success. 
After staying at Cluny for some months, Hildebrand 



TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 311 

returned to Rome. There, for almost a quarter of a 
century, under five successive popes, he was the chief 
adviser and helper of the Papac3\ Several times the 
people of Rome wished to make Hildebrand Pope, but 
he refused. At last, when the fifth of these 

Hildebrand 

popes had died, he was forced to submit. ^if^^^^P® 
In the midst of the funeral services, a cry 
arose from the clergy and the people : 

"Hildebrand is Pope! St. Peter chooses Hildebrand 
to be Pope!" 

When Hildebrand sought again to refuse the office, 
his voice was drowned in cries : 

"It is the will of St. Peter! Hildebrand is Pope!" 

So, he was obliged at last to submit. Unwillingly, it 
is said, and with tears in his eyes, he was led to the 
papal throne. There he was clothed with 
the scarlet robe, and crowned with the 6r®egory*vu. 
papal crown ; then, at length, he was seated 
in the chair of St. Peter, where so many popes had sat 
before him. In accordance with the custom, lie now 
took a new name, and as Pope he was always called 
Gregory VII. 

The Emperor, at this time, was Henry IV., who had 
been ruler over Germany ever since he was six years 
old. One of his guardians had let the boy 
have his own way in everything ; so, al- H?nry°iv. 
though he was well-meaning, he had grown 
up without self-control, and with many bad habits. 
Gregory was determined to make the Emperor give 
up the right of investiture, and also tried to force him 
to reform his manner of living. Henry, for his part, 
was just as determined never to give up any right 



212 ^'ST? STOliY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

which the emperors had before him, and complained 
bitterly of the pride and haughtiness of the Pope. 

A quarrel was the result, which lasted for almost 
fifty years. The question to be settled was not merely 

the right of investiture. It included also 
tu/e"*^*^ " the question whether the Emperor was 

above the Pope, or the Pope above the Em- 
peror. Charlemagne and Otto I., and other emperors, 
had often gone into Italy to correct popes, when they 
did wrong; and at times they had even set aside evil 
popes, and named new ones in their place. Gregory 
now claimed that the Pope was above the Emperor ; 
that the lay power had no rights over the clergy; and 
that the Pope might even depose the Emperor, and free 
his subjects from the obedience which they owed him. 
The Pope, he said, had given the Empire to Charle- 
magne, and what one Pope had given, another could 
take away. 

The popes relied, in such struggles, on the power 
which they possessed to "excommunicate" a person. 

Excommunication cut the person off from 
eJcommuni- the Cliurcli, and no good Christian, thence- 

cates Henry, • i i , i • . i • i i i • 

lorth, might have anything to do with luiii. 
They could not live with him, nor do business with 
him; and if he died unforgiven, his soul was believed 
to be lost. This was the weapon which Gregory used 
against the Emperor Henry, when he refused to give 
up the right of investiture. He excommunicated him, 
and forbade all people to obey him as Emperor, or to 
have anything to do with him. Some of Henry's sub- 
jects were already dissatisfied with his rule, so they 

took this occasion to rise in rebellion. 

t 



TRIUMPH OF TEE PAPACY 



213 



Soon Henry saw that, unless he made his peace with 
the Pope, he Avould lose his whole kingdom. So, with 

Henry IV. at ^^^^ ^^^^^' '^"*"^ infant son, and only one attend- 

canossa ant, lie crossed the Alps, in the depth of 

winter. After terrible hardships, he arrived 

at Canossa, where the Pope was staying, on January 

25, 1077. There, for three days, with bare feet and 




HKNRY IV. AT 



in the dress of a penitent, he Avas forced to stand in the 
cold before the gate of tlie castle. On the fourth day 
he was admitted to tlie presence of the Pope; and cry- 
ing, "Holy Father, .spare me!" he thrcAV himself at 
Gregory's feet. Then tlie Pope raised him up and for- 
gave him; and, after promising that henceforth he 
would rule in all tilings as the Pope wished, Henry was 
allowed to return to Germany. 



214 i:s:e stoey of tee middle ages 

This, however, did not end the quarrel. Henry- 
could not forgive the humiliation that had been put 
upon him. The German people and clergy, 
JonUnue"!^^^ too, would not admit the rights which 
the Pope claimed. Gradually Henry recov- 
ered the power which he had lost ; and at last he again 
went to Italy, — this time with an army at his back. 

All Gregory's enemies now rose up against liim, and 
the Pope was obliged to flee to the Normans in South- 
ern Italy. There the gray-haired old Pope soon died, 
in 1085, saying : 

"One thing only fills me with hope. I have always 
loved the law of God, and hated evil. Therefore, I die 
in exile." 

Even after the death of Gregorj^ the struggle went 
on. New popes arose, who claimed all the power that 
Gregory had claimed ; and everywhere the monks of 
Cluny aided the Pope, and opposed the Emperor. 
Henry's son, also, rebelled against him; and at last, 
twenty-one years after the death of Gregory (1106) 
Henry IV. died, broken-hearted and deprived of power. 

Then Henry's son became Emperor; and although he 

had formerly sided with the Pope, he now found that 

he must continue the struggle, or his power 

Investiture i t i . • * i 

struggle ended would DC nothing. At last, it was seen 

(1122). , , . , • , • 

that each side must give up something. 
The whole trouble had arisen from the fact that the 
bishops were not only officers of the Church, but also 
held feudal ''benefices" of the Emperor. By a com- 
promise which was agreed to in the year 1122, the Em- 
peror surrendered his claim to give the bishops the ring 
and the staff. On the other hand, the Pope agreed that 
the Emperor might control the election of bishops, and 



TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 215 

bind them to perform the duties which they owed 
as a result of the lands which they received from him. 
This agreement, however, did not settle the question 
whether the Pope was above the Emperor, or the Em- 
peror above the Pope. On this point there continued 
to be trouble throughout the Middle Ages. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Find out whtii you can about a great battle between Otto I. 

and the Hungarians. 

2. Read an account of the monastery of Cluny (see encyclopedias). 

3. Find out what you can about the personal .appearance and 

character of Gregory VIT. 

4. Why was the Emperor's submission at Canossa so great a 

triumph for the Pope? 



XXIV 
DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER 

Outline of Chapter 

Powers of Pope and Emperor; the Emperor Frederick I. and 

the Pope; new quarrel with Frederick II. (1214-1250); he is 

three times excommunicated; victory of the Papacy over 

the Empire. 

Victory of France over Pope Boniface VIII. (1303); the 

"Babylonian captivity" of the Papacy at Avignon (1305- 

1376); the Great Schism (1378-1417); Papacy and Empire 

both weakened at the end of the Middle Ages. 

Everybody in the Middle Ages agreed that there 

must be one head to rule over the Church, and one 

head, above all kings and princes, to rule 

Powers of 

Pope and ovcr the statcs of Europe. But thev could 

Emperor. . 

not settle the relations which these two 
powers should bear to each other. 

Some said that the power of the Pope in the world 
was like the soul of a man, and the power of the Em- 
peror was like his body, and since the soul was greater 
than the body, so the Pope must be above the Emperor. 

Another argument Avas founded on the passage in 
the Bible in which the apostles said to Christ: "Be- 
hold, here are two swords;" and Christ answered, ''It 
is enough." By the two swords, it was claimed, was 
meant the power of the Pope and the power of the 
Emperor. Those in favor of the Papacy tried to ex- 
plain that both the SAVords were in Peter's hands, and 
that as Peter was the founder of the Papacy, Christ 
meant both powers to be under the Pope. 

Still another argument Avas based on the "two great 

216 



DECLINE OF PAPAL POTTEP 217 

lights" (the sun and the moon) Avhich the Bible tells 
us God set, the one to rule the day, and the other the 
night. The sun, it was said, represented the Pope, and 
tiie moon the Emperor, and since the moon shines only 
by light received from the sun, so, it was argued, the 
Emperor's power must be drawn entirely from the 
[*ope. It is not surprising that those who favored the 
Emperor would not accept arguments like these. 

When Frederick Barbarossa was Emperor there was 
another long quarrel; and one of the Pope's officers 
tried to show that Frederick held the Em- 

. Emperor 

pire as a "benefice" from the Pope, lust as Frederick i. 

^ ^ ' •* and the Pope. 

a vassal held his land as a benefice from 
his lord. But his claim raised such an outburst of 
anger from the Germans, that the Pope was obliged to 
ex])lain it awaj\ 

The last great struggle between the Papacy and the 
Empire came when Frederick 11., the grandson of 
Frederick Barbarossa, was Emperor. Fred- jj^^ quarrel 
erick II. ruled not only over Germany and Frederick ii. 
Northern Italy, but over Southern Italy as (1214.1250). 
well. His mother was the heiress of the last, of the 
Norman kings in Italy ; and from her Frederick inher- 
ited the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Pope was 
afraid that the Emperor might try to get Rome also, so 
a quarrel soon broke out. 

Frederick had "taken the cross" and promised to go 
on a crusade. When he delayed doing this, the Pope 
excommunicated him for not going. Frederick at last 
was ready, and went to the Holy Land. Then the Pope 
excommunicated him a second time for going without 
getting the excommunication removed. In the Holy 
Land Frederick had great trouble with the Pope's 



218 THE STOSY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

friends because he was excommunicated. At last he 
made a treaty by which he recovered Jerusalem from 
the Mohammedans, and returned home. Then he was 
excommunicated a third time. It seemed as if there was 
nothing that he could do that would please the Pope. 

For a while peace was made between the Pope and 

Emperor, but it did not last long. The Papacy could 

Victor of "f'ver be content so long as the Emperor 

Papacy over rulcd ovcr Soutlicrn Italy. A new quarrel 

Empire (1268). "^ ^ 

broke out ; and this time it lasted until 
Frederick's death in the year 1250. After that, the 
struggle continued until the Papacy was completely 
victorious, and Frederick's son and grandson were 
slain, and Southern Italy was ruled by a King who 
was not also the ruler of Germany. 

Thus the Papacy was left completely victorious over 
the Empire. For nearly a quarter of a century there 
was then no real Emperor in Germany; and when at 
last one was chosen, he was careful to let Italy alone. 
''Italy," said he, "is the den of the lion. I see many 
tracks leading into it, l)ut there are none coming out." 
From this time on, the Emperor of the Holy Roman 
Empire comes more and more to be merely the ruler 
over Germany. 

At about this same time, the popes began to make 
greater claims than ever. One Pope, Boniface VIII., 

clothed himself in the imperial cloak, and 
Pope Boniface with the sceptcr in his hand and a crown 

upon his head, cried: "I am Pope; I am 
Emperor!" This could not last long. The power of the 
Empire was gone, but there were now national gov- 
ernments arising in France, England, and elsewhere, 
which were conscious of their strength. 



DECLINE OF PAPAL POWEE 219 

If we go back to the beginning of the Middle 
Ages, we find that the pcojjli'.s wlio were 
overthi'owing the old Roman Empire were national 

, -, . governments. 

hound together in inbes, the members of 
which were united by ties of kinship, that is, they were 
all of the same blood. But as time went on, and the 
different peoples settled down to orderly life, the old 
tribes were broken up. Then men entered into feudal 
relationships by becoming the vassals of their lords, and 
thenceforth the ties which bound them together were 
those of loyalty and feudal service. As yet there was 
no feeling of patriotism among them, or of loyalty to 
a country. After the Crusades the kings gained more 
power, and began to take from the nobles their feudal 
rights of raising armies, making war when they 
pleased, holding courts, and the like. In this way 
strong national governments arose in France, in Eng- 
land, and elsewhere ; and it was not long before these 
also came into confiict with the Papacy. 

The most powerful of these new governments was 
the monarchy of France. Pope Boniface VIII., who 
had made such great claims for tlie Papacy, 
soon got into a quarrel with King Philip defeated by 
IV., of that country, about some money 
matters; and the way he was treated by the servants 
of the King showed that the old power of the popes was 
really gone, equally with the power of the emperors. 
Boniface was seized at a little town in Italy, where he 
was staying, was struck in the face with a glove by one 
of his own nobles, and was kept prisoner for several 
days. Although he was soon released, the old Pope 
died in a few weeks, — of shame and anger, it was said. 



220 



THE STOUT OF THE MIDDLE AGES 




SEIZURE OF POPE BONIFACE VIII. 



DECLINE OF PAPAL POWER 



221 



Xor was this the end of the matter. Within a few 
jnonths, the seat of the Papacy was removed from 
Kome to Aviffnon, on the river Rhone. 

The Papacy 

There, for al)ont seventy years, the popes at Avignon 

. . . (1309-1376). 

remained under the influence of the kings 

of France. Tliis period is known as the "Bal)ylonian 




%y.^- 












fk'^^' 



^^>\ 




1 ^lJfIi&»^^V^ 






TAPAL PALACE AT AVIGNON 

captivity"' of the Papacy, in memory of the seventy 
years' captivity of the Jews at Babylon, which is de- 
scribed in the Old Testament. • 

And even when, at last, a Pope removed the Papacy 
l)ack to Rome, new troubles arose. A great division or 
"schism" followed, during which there Avere two popes 
instead of one ; and all the riations of Europe were 
divided as to whether they should obey the Pope at 
Rome, or tlu? one at Avignon. 



222 'Z'^^' STOUT OF THE MIDBl.E AGES 

"All our West land," wrote an EngHslnnan, named 

Wyelif, "is with that one Pope or that other; and he 

that is with that one, hateth the other, with 

The Great ,, , . • i -r» 

Schism all his. Some men say tliat here is the 1 ope 

(1378-1417). 

at Avignon, for he was well chosen ; and 
some men say tiiat he is yonder at Rome, for he was 
first chosen." 

A Council of the Church tried to end the schism ; but 
it only made matters worse by adding a third Pope to 
the two that already existed. At last, another and 
greater Council was held ; and there, after the schism 
had lasted for nearly forty years, all three popes were 
set aside, and a new one was chosen whom all the na- 
tions accepted. 

So, at last, the Papacy was reunited and restored to 
Rome. But it never recovered entirely from its stay 

at Avignon, and from the Great Schism. 

Papacy and „,, ,. , 

Empire both Tile powcr ot llic poi)es was never again as 

great as it had l)eeii ])efore the quarrel 

between Boniface Viil. ami tlic King of France. The 

Papacy had triumplu'd over tiie Empire, but it could 

not triumph over the national kingdoms. 

"We look on Pope and Emperor alike," said a w^riter 
in the fifteenth century, wdio soon became Pope him- 
self, "as names in a story, or heads in a picture." 

Thenceforth, there was no ruler whom all Christen- 
dom would obey. The. end of the Middle Ages, indeed, 
was fast approaching. The modern times, when each 
nation obeys its own kings and follows only its own 
interests, were close at hand. 



DECLINE OF PAPAL POWER 223 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Eead an account of Frederick IT. 

2. How did the "Babylonian captivity" weaken the Papacy? 

3. How did the Great Schism weaken it? 

4. Why do we not today recognize some one ruler, like the 

Emperor in the Middle Ages, as the ruler in chief of all 
Christian lands? 

5. Would it be best (a) for the Pope to be above the Emperor, 

or (b) the Emperor above the Pope, or (c) Church and 
State to be entirely independent? Why? 



XXV 

FIRST PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED 
YEARS' WAR 

Outline of Chapter 

The earlier wars between England and France did not greatly 

concern the people; a new spirit comes in with the Hundred 

Years' War (1337-1453). 
Causes of this war; English archers at the battle of Crecy 

(1346); flight of tlio French crossbowmen; the Black Prince 

and the King; victor}' of the English. 
The Black Death wastes both England and France; the war 

renewed; battle of Poitiers (1356); victory of the f^nglish; 

the French King captured. 

One of the signs that the Middle Ages were com- 
ing to an end was the long war hetween France and 
England. It lasted altogether from 1337 to 1453, and 
is called the Hundred Years' AVar. 

Wlien AVilliam the Conqueror became King of Eng- 
land (see p. 131), he did not cease to be Duke of Nor- 
^ ,. mandy. Indeed, as time went on, the power 

Earlier wars '' ' ' *■ _ 

between Qf Euglisli kings iu France increased, until 

England and ^ ° 

France. William's successors ruled all the western 

part of that land, from north of the river Seine to the 
Pyrenees mountains, and from the Bay of Biscay almost 
to the river Khone. They held all this territory as fiefs 
of the kings of France; but the fact that they were, 
also, independent kings of England, made them stronger 
than their overlords. This led to freqiKuit wars, until, 
at last, the English kings had lost all their land in 
France except Aquitaine, in the soutliAvest. 

These, however, were merely feudal wars between 

224 



FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAB 225 

the rulers of the two countries. They did not much 
concern the people of either France or England ; for 
in neither country had the people come to j,j^ ^^^ 
feel that they were a nation, and that one of foncem the 
their first duties Avas to love their own p^^p^^- 
country and support their own government. In Aqui- 
taine, indeed, the people scarcely felt that they were 
French at all, and rather preferred the kings of Eng- 
land to the French kings, who dwelt at Paris. 

During the Hundred Years' War, all this was to 
change. In fighting with one another, in this long 
struggle, the people of France and of Eng- 

New spirit 

land came gradually to feel that they were in Hundred 
French and English. The people of Aqui- 
taine began to feel that they were of nearer kin to 
tliose who dwelt about Paris, than they were to the 
English ; and began to feel love for France and hatred 
for England. It was the same, too, with the English. 
In fighting the French, the descendants of the old Sax- 
ons and of the conquering Normans came to feel that 
they were all alike Englishmen. So, although the long 
war brought terrible suffering and misery, it brought 
also some good to both countries. In each patriotism 
was born, and in each the people became a nation. 

There were many things which led up to the war, 
but the chief thing was the fact that the French King 
who died in 1328 left no son to succeed 
him. The principal claimants for the throne ^^3^^^°^ 
were his cousin, Philip, who was a Duke in 
France, and his nephew, Edward III. of England. The 
French no1)les decided in favor of Duke Philip, and 
he became King as Philip VI. Edward did not like this 
decision, but he accepted it for a time. After nine 



226 THE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

years, however, war broke out because of other rea- 
sons ; and then Edward claimed the throne as right- 
fully his. 

During the first eight years, neither country gained 
any great advantage, though the English won an im- 
portant battle at sea. In the ninth year of the war, the 
English gained their first great victory on land. 

This battle took place at Crecy, in the northernmost 

part of France, about one hundred miles from Paris. 

The French army was several times as large 

archers at as the Euglish, and was made up mainly of 

mounted knights, armed with lance and 

sword, and clad in the heavy armor of the Middle Ages. 

The Englisli army was made up chiefly of archers, on 




ARCHERS SHOOTING .\T MARK 



foot. Everywhere, in England, boys were trained, from 
the time they were six or seven years old, to shoot 
with the bow and arrow. As they grew older, stronger 
and stronger bows were given them, until at last they 
could use the great long-bows of their fathers. The 
greatest care was taken in this teaching; and on holi- 
days grown men, as well as boys, might be seen shoot- 
ing at marks on the village commons. In this way, the 
English became the best archers in Europe; and so 



FIEST PEEIOD OF THE WAR 



227 



powerful were tlieir bows that the arrows would often 
pierce armor, or slay a knight's horse, at a hundred 
yards. 

So, the advantage was not so great on the side of the 
French as it seemed. Besides, King Edward placed 
his men very skillfully, while the French 
managed the battle very badly. Edward fh^'brtul °^ 
placed his archers at the top of a sloping 
hillside, with the knights behind them. In command of 
the first line he placed his fifteen year old son, the 
Black Prince, while the King him- 
self took a position on a little 
windmill-hill, in the rear. 

The French had a large number 
of crossbowmen Avith them. Al- 
though the crossbowmen could not 
shoot so rapidly as the English 
archers, because the crossbow had 
to be rested on the ground and 
wound up after each shot, they 
conld shoot to a greater distance 
and with more force. Unluckily, 
they were hungry and tired out by 
the long day's march, while the 
English were fresh and vigorous. 
So, when the French King ordered 
the crossbowmen to advance, they went unwillingly; 
and when the English archers, each stepping forward 
one pace, let fly their arrows "so thick that it seemed 
that it snowed," the crossbowmen turned and fled. 

At this King Philip was very angry, for he thought 
they fled through cowardice ; so he cried: 

"Slay me those rascals!" 




A CUOSSBOWMAN 



328 ^^^' STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

At this coiniuand, the French knights rode among 
the erossbowmen, and IdUed many of tlieir own men. 
All this time the English arrows Avere falling in show- 
ers about them, and many horses and knights, as well 
as archers, were slain. 

Then the French horsemen charged the English lines. 

Some of the knights about the young Prince now began 

to fear for him, and sent to the King, urg- 

The Black . , • , i • i. 

Prince and ing him to scud assistancc. 

the King. ,,j^ ^^^ ^^^ dead," asked tlie King, "or 

so wounded that he cannot help himself?" 

"No, sire, please God," answered the messenger, 

"but he is in a hard 
passage of arms, 
and much needs 
yoiii- help. " 

"Then," said 

King Edward, "re- 

LS^" ^>^^ -'Uma=^- turn to them that 

KNUaiiS INI^ATTLIC ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ 

them not to send to me again so long as my son lives. 
I command them to let the boy win his spurs. If God be 
pleased, I will that the honor of this day shall be his." 

On the Frencli side, was the blind old King of Bo- 
hemia. AVhen the fighting began, he said to those about 
him : 

"You are my vassals and friends. I pray you to 
lead me so far into the battle that T may strike at least 
one good stroke with my sword!" 

Two of his attendants then placed themselves on 
either side of him ; and, tying the l)ridles of their horses 
together, they rode into the figlit. There the old 
blind King fought valiantly ; and when the battle was 




FIEST PERIOD OF THE JVAR •_)■)() 

over, the bodies of all three were found, witli their 
horses still tied together. 

The victory of the English was complete. Thou- 
sands of the French were slain, and King Philip him- 
self was obliged to Hee, to escape capture. 
So the l^lack Prince won his spurs right Y}^^°^y °.^^ 

^ ° the English. 

iio])ly, but the chief credit for the victory 

was due to the good shooting of the English archers. 

It was some years after this before the next great 
battle was fought. This was due^ in part, to a terrible 
sickness which came upon all Western Eu- 
rope, soon after the battle of Crecy. It was Death^*'^'' 
called the Black Death, and arose in Asia, 
where cholera and the plague often arise. AVhole vil- 
lages were attacked at the same time ; and for two 
years the disease raged everywhere. When at last 
it died out, half of the population of England was 
gone ; and Prance had suffered almost as terribly. 

Ten years after the battle of Crecy (in 1356), the war 
broke out anew. The Black Prince, at the head of an 
army, set out from Aciuitaine and marclu^d 
northward into the heart of France. Soon, of Pouiers 

(1356). 

however, he found his retreat cut off, near 
the city of Poitiers, by the P>ench King, John (who 
had succeeded his father Philip), with an army six or 
seven times the size of the English force. The situation 
of the English was so bad that the Prince offered to 
give up all the prisoners, castles, and towns which they 
had taken during this expedition, and to promise not 
to fight against France again for seven years, if the 
French King would grant them a free retreat. But 
King John felt so sure of victory that he refused these 
terms. Then the jjattle began. 



230 T^^ STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Just as at Crecy, the English were placed on a little 
hill ; and again they depended chiefly on their archers. 
From behind a thick hedge, they shot their arrows in 
clouds as the French advanced. Soon all was uproar 
and confusion. Many of the French lay wounded or 
slain; and many of their horses, feeling the sting of 
the arrow-heads, reared wildly, flung their riders, and 
dashed to the rear. When once dismounted, a knight 




B.\TTI>E OI<" port U.l(> 
From a picture In an old manuscript. 

could not mount to the saddle again without assistance, 
so heavy was the armor which was then worn. 

In a short time this division of the French was over- 
thrown. Then a second, and finally a third division 
met the same fate. To the French war- 
win th"^ '^ cries ' ' Mount joy ! Saint Denis ! " the Eng- 
victory. ^.^j^ replied with shouts of "Saint George! 

Guyenne!" The ringing of spear-heads upon shields, 
the noise of breaking lances, the clash of hostile swords, 



FIEST PERIOD OF THE WAR 



231 



and battle-axes, were soon added to the rattle of Eng- 
lish arrows upon French breastplates and helmets. 

At last the French were all overthrown, or turned 
in flight, except in one part of the field. There 
King John, with a few of his bravest knights, fought 
valiantly on foot. As he swung his heavy battle-ax, 
now at this foe and now at that, his son Philip, a 
brave boy of thirteen years, cried unceasingly : 
''Father, guard right! Father, guard left!" 
Finally even the King was obliged to surrender ; and 
he and his son Philip were taken prisoners, and were 
conducted to the tent of the English Prince. 
There they were courteously entertained, ?,■?« ^'■«"'=^ 

, King captured. 

the Prince waiting upon them at table 
with his own hands. But for several years they re- 
mained captives, awaiting the ransom which the Eng- 
lish demanded. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Eead an account of the causes of the Hundred Years' War. 

(See Harding's Story of England, p. 121.) 

2. Write a story of the battle of Crecy, from the point of 

view of an English squire who was present at it. 

3. Find out what you can about the Black Death and its 

effects in England and in France. (Story of Ennlami, 
pp. 127-129.) 

4. Imagine that you are the French Prince Philip, and write 

a letter describing your capture at Poitiers. 



XXVI 
MIDDLE PEKIOJ) OF THE STRUGGLE 

Outline of Chapter 

Troubles in France; ('liarles the Wise bet-onies King; the Eng- 
lish at a disadvantage; successes of the French (1370-1380). 

New disorders in France; Henry V. becomes King of England; 
he renews the war (1415); English victory at Agincourt. 

The battle of Poitiers was a sad blow, indeed, to 
France. ]\Iany hundreds of her noblest knights were 
there slain, and all sorts of disorders arose 
iTi^Fr^nce. during the captivity of her King. The 
peasants rose in rebellion against their mas- 
ters, and civil war broke out. And when, after four 
years of comfortal)le captivity, King John Avas set free, 
he was oliliged to pay a lieavy ransom, and to sign a 
peace in which he surrendered to the English, in full 
right, all of Aquitaine. 

Soon after this, ''good King John," as he was called, 
died, leaving his kingdom in great disorder. He Avas 
a good knight and a brave man, but he was a poor 
general and a weak king. 

His eldest son, Charles, who was styled Charles V., 

or Charles the AVise, now became King. He was very 

different from his father; and though he 

Charles the . i • i i i • i 

wipo becomes was uot nearly so knightlv a warrior, he 

King (1350). 1 1 i.4. 1 • ' TT • A 

proved a much better king. He improved 
the government and the army; and when the war with 
the English was resumed, he soon began to be suc- 
cessful. 

232 



MIDDLE PEEIOD OF THE STRUGGLE 



233 



The Black Prince was now broken in liealtli, and 
died in the year 1370; the oki English King, Edward 
111., died the next year; and then Richard 

' "^ The English 

II., the twelve year old son of the Black at a 

' " disadvantage. 

Prince, became King of England. Troubles, 
too, broke out in England ; and as a result of all this 
the Englisli were not able to carry on the war nearly 
as vigorously as they had done before. 

At the same time, the French .King found a general. 




KNIGHT ATTAfM.NC KOOT .SOMUKKS 



named Du Guesclin, who pi-oved to be one of the best 
commanders that the Middle Ages produced. 

Du Guesclin was a poor country noble, from West- 
ern France. As a boy he was so ugly and ill favored 
that his parents scarcely loved him, and his 

_ - ,. ,, .,, Du Guesclin. 

cliief pleasure was ni fighting the village constable of 

' France. 

lads. At sixteen years of age he ran away 
from home, and lived for a time with an uncle.' He 
longed to take part in tournaments and pei-t'orm feats 
of arms, but he Avas too poor to i)rovide himself witli a 
horse and armor. But one day, when a tournament 
was being held at his native toAvn, lie returned there, 
borrowed a horse and armor, and overthrew fifteen 
knights, one after the other. When he raised the visor 



234 



THE STOBY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 



of his helmet, and his father saw Avho the uuknown war- 
rior was, there was a happy reunion. 

In the earlier stages of the Hundred Years' War, Du 
Gueselin had taken some part, but had not been present 
at either Crecy or at Poitiers. He had made a nprae for 

himself, however, 
and was recognized 
as a man of im- 
portance. 

When Charles V. 
renewed the war 
with the English, 
he chose Du Gues- 
elin to be "Con- 
stable of France," 
that is, commander- 
in-c li i e f of the 
P^ronch armies. At 
first Du Gueselin 
asked the King to 
excuse him from 
this office, saying 
that he was but a 
poor man, and not 
of high birth ; and 
how could he ex- 
pect the great nobles of France to obey him ? But the 
King answered him, saying: 

"Sir, do not excuse yourself thus; for there is no 
nobleman in the kingdom, even among my own kin, who 
would not obey you. And if any should be so hardy 
as to do otherwise, he would surely hear from me. So 
take the office freely, I beseech you." 




DU GUESCLIN 



MIDDLE PERIOD OF THE STRUGGLE 235 

So Du Gueselin became Constable, and from that time 
the fortunes of France began to improve. 

One trouble with the French had been that they 
scorned the "base-born" foot-soldiers, and thought 
that war should be the business of the 

, 1 1 • 1 J 1 1 , Successes of 

heavy-armed knights alone ; and another the French 
was that the knights thought it disgrace- 
ful to retreat, even when they knew they could not 
win. AVith Du Gueselin, all was different, lie was 
willing to use peasants and townsmen if their way of 
fighting was better than that of the nobles; and he 
did not think it beneath him to retreat, when he saw 
that he could not win a victory. 

So, by caution and good sense, and with the support 
of wise King Charles, Du Gueselin won victory after 
victory; and though no great battles were fought, al- 
most all of the English possessions in France came once 
more into the hands of the French. 

But here, for a time, the French successes stopped. 
Du Gueselin died, in 1380, and soon after him King 
Charles V. Now it was the French who 
had a boy king, and when this King. ^^Z '^'^<"'"i®" 

*','=" *=• in France. 

Charles VI., grew to be a man, he became 
insane. His uncles quarreled with one another, and 
with the King's brother, for the government. Soon the 
quarrel led to murder, and the murder to civil war ; 
and again France was thrown into all the misery and 
disorder from which it had been rescued by Charles 
the "Wise. 

In England, about this time, King Henry V. came 
to the throne. He was a young and warlike prince ; 
and he wished, through a renewal of the war, to win 
glory for himself. Besides, he remembered the old claim 



236 



TBE SrOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



of Edward III. to the French crown; and he thought 

that now, when the French nobk^s were fighting among 

„. „ „ themselves, was a fine opportunity to make 

King Henry V. ' t i •' 

of England. ^|j.^^ cUlim gOOd. 

So, in the year 1415, King Henry landed with an 

army in France, and 
began again the old, 
old struggle. Again, 
after a few months, 
the English found 
their retreat cut off, 
at Agincourt, not far 
from Crecy, by a 
much larger army of 
the French. But 
King Henry remem- 
bered the former vic- 
tories of the Engli.sh, 
and did not despair. 
AVlien one of his 
knights Avished that 
the thousands of 
warriors then lying 
idle in England were 
only there, King 
Henry exclaimed : 
"I would not have 
a single man more. H God gives us the victory, it 
will be plain that we owe it to His grace. If not, the 
fewer we are, the less loss to England." 

At Agincourt, there was no sheltering hedge to pro- 
tect the English archers. To make up for this. King 
Henry ordered each man to provide himself with tall 




HALBERDS, BILLS. AND PIKES 



MIDDLE PEBIOD OF THE STEUGGLE 237 

stakes, sharpened at each end ; these they planted slant- 
wise in the ground, as a protection against French 
horsemen. Most of the English force was 

English 

victory at again made up of archers, with the long- 

Agincourt ts -i 

(1415). bow; while most of the French were 

knights, in full armor. The French seemed to have 
forgotten all that Du Guesclin and Charles V. had 
taught them. To make matters worse, their knights 
dismounted, and sought to march upon the English 
position on foot. As the field through which they had 
to pass was newly plowed, and wet with rain, the 
heavy-armed knights sank knee-deep in mud, at every 
step. 

For the third time, the English victory was complete. 
Eleven thousand Frenchmen were left dead upon the 
field, and among the number were more than a hun- 
. dred great lords and princes. 

In after years Englishmen sang of the wonderful 
victory in these words : 

Agincourt, Agincourt! 
Know ye not Agincourt? 
When English slew and hurt 

All their French foemen? 
With our pikes and bills brown 
How the French were beat down, 

Shot by our bowmen! 

Agincourt, Agincourt! 
Know ye not Agincourt? 
English of every sort, 

High men and low men, 
Fought that day wondrous well, as 
All our old stories tell us, 

Thanks to our bowmen. 



238 2'^S STOET OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Agineourt, Agincourt ! 
Know ye not Agincourt? 
When our fifth Harry taught 

Frenchmen to know men, 
And when the day was done 
•Thousands then fell to one 

Good English bowman. 

So the middle period of the war, like the first period, 
ends with a great victory for the English, and a flood- 
tide of English success. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Why were the French more successful under Du Guesclin 

than at Crecy and Poitiers? 

2. Find out what you can about King Charles V. of France. 

3. Bead Shakespeare's account of the battle of Agincourt 

("Henry V.," Act IV). 



XXVII 

JOAN OF ARC AND THE CLOSE OF 
THE WAR 

Outline of Chapter 

" Burgiindians " and " Armagnacs; " death of Henry V. and 
Charles VI.; government of England and France afterwards. 

Joan of Arc appears; her early life; her "voices"; she leads 
the French troops before Orleans; she saves France; her 
capture and death (1431). 

French successes continue; end of war (1453). 

Even so great a defeat as that at Agiucourt could 
not make the French princes cease from their quarrels. 
Again the leader of one party was mur- 
dered by the followers of the other ; and a^P^ **°^ 
the followers of the dead prince became so 
bitterly hostile that they were willing to join the Eng- 
lish against the other party. In this way the *'Bur- 
gundians, ' ' as the one party was named, entered into a 
treaty with Henry of England against the "Armag- 
nacs," as the other party was called. It was agreed 
that Henry V. should marry Katharine, the daughter 
of the insane King Charles VI., and that Henry should 
become King of France when the old King died. No 
one seemed to care for the rights of the Dauphin (the 
French King's son) except the Armagnacs; they, of 
course, were opposed to all that the Burgundians did. 

Both Henry V. of England and poor old Charles 
VI. of France died within two years after this treaty 
was signed. Henry had married Katharine as agreed ; 
and though their son (Henry VI.) was a mere 

239 



240 ^'^^ STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

baby, only nine months old, he now became King of 
both England and France. In neither country, how- 
ever, was his reign to be a happy or a 

Death of . • 

Henry V. peaccful onc. In England, the little 

(1422). . . 

King's relatives fell to quarreling about 
the government, just as had happened in France, 
and when he grew up, like his French grandfather he 
became insane. At the same time the English found 
their hold upon France relaxing, and the land slipping 
from their grasp. 

Only the Armagnacs, at first, had recognized the 
Dauphin as King; and for seven years after the death 
of his father he had great difficulty in keep- 
appears iiig any part of France from the hands of 

(1429) 

the English. In the year 1429, however, a 
great change took place. A young peasant girl, named 
Joan of Arc, appeared at the King's court in that 
year, and, under her inspiration and guidance, the 
French cause began to gain, and the English and Bur- 
gundian to lose ground. 

Joan's home was in the far northeastern part of 

France, where she had been brought up in her father's 

cottage, with her brothers and sisters. 

nil ^^""^^ There she helped to herd the sheep, assisted 

her mother in household tasks, and learned 

to spin and sew. She never learned to read and write, 

for that was not thought necessary for peasant girls. 

Joan was a sweet, good girl, and was very religious. 

Even in her far-off village, the people suffered from the 

evils which the wars brought upon the 

??^Ji„<.. " land, and Joan's heart was moved bv the 

voices. ' 

distress which she saw about her. When 
she was thirteen years old, she began to hear voices 



JOAN OF ARC 



241 



of saints aud angels, — of Saint Catherine and Saint 
Margaret, and of the augel Gabriel. When she was 
eighteen her "voices" told her that she must go into 
France, aid the Dauphin, and cause hini to he crowned 
King at Rheinis, Avhere the kings of France had been 
crowned before him. 

The cause of the Dauphin, at this time, was at its 




JOAN or ARC USTKNING TO THE VOICES 

lowest ebb. The English were besieging the city of 
Orleans, on the Loire river; and, if that j^^n le^as the 
should be taken, all France would be lost. ^'^«"'=^ ^'■°°p^- 
So, the first work that Joan set herself to do was to 
raise the siege of Orleans. 

With much difficulty she succeeded in reaching tlie 
Dauphin. When she was brought into the room where 



343 '^SE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

he was, she picked him out from among all, though 
she had never seen him before and though many of the 
courtiers were more richly dressed than he. After many 
weeks she succeeded in persuading his councillors that 
her "voices" were from God, and not from the evil 
one. Then, at last, she was given a suit of armor ; and 
mounted on a white horse, with a sword at her side and 
a standard in her hand, she rode at the head of the 
Dauphin's troops to Orleans. 

When once Joan had reached that place, she so 
encouraged the citizens that, within eight days, the 

English were forced to raise the siege and 
Frlnce!^^ to retire. It seemed to the French a miracle 

of God, while the English dreaded and 
feared her, as a witch or sorceress. From this time 
Joan is called "the Maid of Orleans." Nor did her 
success stop with the relief of tliat city. Within a few 
months, the Dauphin was taken to Rheims, and crowned 
as the true King of France. After this, many flocked 
to his standard, who before had taken no part in the 
war. From that time on, the French began to get the 
advantage of the English ; and it was mainly the enthu- 
siasm and faith aroused by the Maid that caused the 
change. 

Joan's M'ork was now almost done. Twice she was 
wounded, while fighting at the head of the King's 

troops. At last, she was taken prisoner 

Her capture ' ^ 

' aLi)^^^ '^^ ^ pai'fy of Burgundians, and turned over 
to the English. By them she was put on 
trial for heresy and sorcery. She showed much cour- 
age and skill, before her judges, but she was con- 
demned and sentenced to be burned to death at the 
stake. 



JOAN OF ABC 



243 



The next day the sentence was carried out. To the 
last, she showed herself brave, kind, and womanly. As 
the flames mounted about her an Englishman cried out : 

"We are lost; we have burned a "saint!" 

Such, indeed, she was, if a saint was ever made by 
purity, faith, and noble suffering. 

The English burned the Maid and threw her ashes 
into the river Seine; 
but they could not 
undo her work. The 
French continued to 
gain victory after 
victory, even after 
she had been put to 
death. Soon the old 
quarrel between the 
Armagnacs and Bur- 
gundians was set- 
tled, and the Bur- 
gundians abandoned 
the English. Then 
Paris was gained by 
the French King. 
Some years after this 
Normandy was con- 
quered, and finally 
Aquitaine. 

In the year 1453, the long, long war came to an end. 
Of all the wide territories which the English had once 
possessed in France, they now held only 
one little town in the north ; and the 
shadows of a civil war— the War of the 
Roses — were settling on England to prevent them from 




JOAN AT 



THE CUOWNING 
FKENCn KING 



OF THE 



End pf the 
war '(1453). 



244 THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

ever regaining what they had lost. Down to the time 
of George III., the English kings continued to style 
themselves "kings of France;" but this was a mere 
form. The French now felt themselves to be a nation, 
and only a national king could rule over them. 

That this was so was mainly due to the Maid of 
Orleans. She was the real savior of France, and 
remains its greatest national hero. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Make a list of the chief events of the Hundred Years' War, 

with their dates. 

2. Write an account in your own words of the life and death 

of Joan of Are. 

3. Was the failure of the English kings to secure the throne 

of France a good or a bad thing for England? Why? 



XXVIII 
END OF THE CUDDLE AGES 

Outline of Chapter 

When the Middle Ages came to an end; what brought this 
about. Influence of the Crusades, etc.; capture of Coustan- 
tinople by the Turks {l4'hV). 

Other factors: (1) The Revival of Learning; (2) new inventions 
—printing, gunpowder, the compass and "cross-staff"; (3) 
discovery of new lands — Prince Henry the Navigator; Colum- 
bus; Vasco de Gama. 

European states at the end of the Middle Ages: Germany; 
Italy, Sweden, and Holland; Englan<l; France; Spain. 

Relation of the Middle Ages to the history of the New World. 

AVitiTERS of histories are not agreed as to just when 
the Middle Ages came to an end ; but all unite in say- 
ing that the change had come by about the year 1500. 

If we ask what this change was, the question is easy 
to answer, though perhaps hard to understand. When 
men had come to think different thoughts, ^j^^ ^^^ 
and live under different institutions, in the ^^f\J^^^^ 
Church and in the State, from those wiiich »° ^''^^ 
we have been describing, then the end of the Middle 
Ages had come. Feudalism ceased to be a sufficient tie 
to bind men together in society, and national states, 
as we have seen, arose. Men came to rely less upon 
their guilds and communes, their orders and classes, 
and to act more for themselves as individuals. Igno- 
rance, too, became less dense ; and, as men learned more 
of the world and of themselves, superstition became 
less universal and degrading. 

It was such changes as these that mark tlie close of 

245 



246 THE STOUT OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

the Middle Ages and the beginning of a new time. 
Many of the events of which we have been reading 
helped to bring on these changes, and to put an end to 
this period of history. 

The Crusades did a great deal, by bringing the dif- 
ferent peoples of Europe into contact with one another, 
and broadening their minds. At the same 

Influence of i-^ 

' the Crusades, time, the Crusadcs helped to develop the 

etc. 

commerce which kept the nations in touch, 
and gave them the wealth needed to encourage art and 
literature. 

The long struggle between the Papacy and the Em- 
pire, as we have seen, ])roke down the political powers 
of each, and so prepared the way for the rise of new 
institutions. 

The Hundred Years' AYar between France and 
England, by making these nations feel that they were 
French and English, helped to complete the break-up 
of the old system, and bring in a time when all Europe 
was divided into a number of national states, each 
with its own interests and government, and owing 
obedience to no emperor or other superior. 

The capture of Constantinople by the Turks, and the 
fall of the Eastern Empire, was another event which 
helped ])ring the IMiddle Ages to a close. 

After the Crusades had come to an end, a new 

branch of Turks, called the Ottomans, had risen to 

power. In the course of a century and a 

fht'i^urks".^ half, they made themselves masters of all 

Asia Minor and Palestine, and of a good 

part of Southeastern Europe as well. At Adrianople, 

where the Goths had won their first great victory, they 

fixed their capital; and their "horse-tail" standards 



END OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 247 

were thence borne far up the valley of the Danube, into 
Hungary and Austria. 

For many years the walls of Constantinople proved 
too much for them, and there the Eastern Empire pro- 
longed its feeble existence. When the 
Hundred Years' War was just coming to Constantinople 
an end, a new Sultan came to the throne 
whose entire energies were devoted to capturing that 
city and making it his capital. In 1453 the attack 
began. Great cannons, — tlie largest the world had 
then seen, — now thundered away, along with catapults, 
battering-rams, and other engines which the Middle 
Ages used. 

After fifty-three days, the city was taken. Then the 
Christian churches became ^Mohammedan mosques ; and 
the standard of the sultans floated where, for a thou- 
sand years, had hung the banner of the Eastern em- 
perors. In this way was established the Ottoman Em- 
pire, the continued existence of which causes some of 
the hardest problems which the Christian nations have 
to face today. 

To escape from Turkish rule, great numbers of Greek 
scholars fled from Constantinople to the West, bring- 
ing with them their knowledge of the Greek tongue, 
and great quantities of Greek manuscripts. 

All these events which we have been recounting 
helped to bring the JMiddle Ages to a close ; but other 
things helped even more than these. One 
factor of importance was what we call the f^^iJ^^^ 
Revival of Learning; another was certain 
great inventions which the later jMiddle Ages pro- 
duced; and a third was the discovery of new lands 
and new peoples across the seas. 



248 ^^-E' STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Although the monks had done much for learning, 
during the Middle Ages, nevertheless a great deal of 
the knowledge and literature of the olden 
Revivaf time had disappeared. Many of the most 

famous works of the old Greek and Latin 
authors had been lost sight of altogether. Others, also, 
which the monks had preserved, they did not under- 
stand; and still others they almost feared to read, 
because they were full of the stories of the old gods, 
whom the Middle Ages regarded as evil spirits. The 
Latin, too, which the monks spoke and wrote was very 
incorrect and corrupt; and practically no one outside 
of the Eastern Empire understood Greek at all. 

About the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
liowever, men began to take a new interest in the old 
literature. They began to write more correct Latin. 
They searched for forgotten manuscripts, which might 
contain some of the lost works. They corrected and 
edited the manuscripts they had, and began to make 
dictionaries and grammars, to aid them in understand- 
ing them. Some persons even began to learn Greek. 
and to collect Greek manuscripts, as well as Latin ones. 

Above all, scholars tried to put themselves back in 
the place of the old Greeks and Romans, and to look at 
the world through their eyes, and not through the eyes 
of the mediiEval monks. 

The result was that many things began to seem dif- 
ferent to them. They no longer feared this world, as 
the monks had done. They took delight in its beauty, 
and no longer thouglit that everything which was pleas- 
ant was therefore sinful. And because they believed 
that man's life as a human being was good in itself, 
the new scholars were called "humanists," and their 
studies and ways of thinking "humanism." 



END OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 249 

This change in the way of thinking came only grad- 
ually, and it was a hundred years before humanism 
began to spread from Italy, where it first 
arose, to the countries north of the Alps. .^^^ ^®^ 

' ^ inventions. 

When it did, the Germans contributed some- 
thing which helped to spread humanism more rapidly. 
This was the invention of printing. 

The making of books by forming each letter, in each 
copy, separately with the pen, was so slow that men 
had long hunted for some means of lessening the labor. 
They found that, by engraving the page upon a block of 
wood, and printing from this, they could make a hun- 
dred copies almost as easily as one ; so, in the fifteenth 
century, "block books," as they were called, began to 
be made. But the trouble with these was, that every 
page had to be engraved separately, and this proved 
such a task that only books of a very few pages were 
made in this way. 

Then it occurred to John Gutenberg, of Strassburg, 
that if he made the letters separate, he could use the 
same ones over and over again to form 
new pages ; and if, instead of cutting the p"'n"in^," "^ 
letters themselves, he made moulds to pro- 
would be better than wood anyway), and from the one 
duce them, then he could cast his type in metal (which 
mould he could make as many of each letter as was 
necessary. 

In this way, printing from movable metal types was 
invented by Gutenberg, about the year 1450. It seems 
like a very small thing, when we tell about it, but it was 
one of the most important inventions that the world has 
ever seen. 

The first book that was printed was the Bible, in 



250 



THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 




EARLY PRINTERS 



Latin. Soon, presses and printing offices were estab- 
lished all over Western Europe, printing Bibles and 
other books, and selling them so cheaply that almost 
every one could now afford to buy. Thus the invention 

of printing served 
to spread the new 
humanism and the 
knowledge of the 
Bible throughout 
Europe, and these 
two together did 
much to bring on 
the Reformation, 
and indeed to put 
an end entirely to 
the Middle Ages. 
The introduction of gunpowder was also, in the end, 
of very great importance. 

Nobody knows just when or by wiiom gunpowder 
was invented ; but it was used to make rockets and fire- 
works, in India and China, long before it 
of*'^unpow°der. ^^^^ kuowu in Europc. In the fourteenth 
century the ]\Ioors of Spain introduced the 
use of cannon into Europe; and by the date of the 
battle of Crecy (1346) cannon were to be found in most 
of the western countries. These, however, were usu- 
ally small, and were often composed merely of iron 
staves, roughly hooped together, or even of wood or of 
leather; and the powder used was weak, and without 
sufficient force to throw the ball any great distance. 

It was not gunpowder, as is sometimes said, that first 
overthrew the armored knight of the Middle Ages. It 
was the archers who did this, and the foot-soldiers 



END OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



251 




EARLY CANNON 



armed with long pikes for thrusting, and with hal- 
berds hooked at the end by means of which the knight 
might be pulled from his horse. 

As the cannon were improved, however, they be- 
came of great service in breaking down the walls 
of feudal castles, 
and of hostile cit- 
ies; and so, in the 
end, they helped 
greatly to change 
the mode of mak- 
ing war. But it was 
not until the Mid- 
dle Ages had come 
to an end, that 
gunpow^der had be- 
come so useful in 

small hand guns that the old long-bows and crossbows 
completely disappeared. 

Two other inventions that came into use in the 
Middle Ages were also of great importance in bring- 
ing in the new time. These were the com- 

,. Ti 1 xi <i The compass 

pass, or magnetic needle, and the cross- and cross- 

1 • 1 • T staff. 

staff," used by sailors for finding latitude. 

Like gunpowder, the compass came from Asia, where 
it was used by the Chinese long, before the birth of 
Christ. It was introduced into Europe, as a guide 
to sailors, about the beginning of the fourteenth cen- 
tury. It enabled them to steer steadily in whatever 
direction they wished, even w^hen far from land; but 
it could not tell them where they were at any given 
time. 

The cross-staff did this, in part, for it could tell them 



252 



THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



their latitude by measuring the height of the north star 
above the horizon. The "astrolabe" was another 
instrument which was used for the same purpose. 
These were very ancient instruments, but they did not 
begin to be used by sailors until some time in the fif- 
teenth century. Even then the sailor had to trust to 
guess-work for his longitude, for the watches and chro- 
nometers, by which ship captains now measure longi- 
tude, were n*ot yet 
^ invented ; and sail- 

••... ing maps were only 

b e g i n n i n g to be 
made. 

Yet, in spite of 
these disadvantages, 
and in spite of the 
smallness of the ves- 
sels, and the terrors 
of unknown seas, 
great progress was 
made in the discov- 
ery of new lands, be- 
fore the close of our period. The commerce of the 
Italian cities made their citizens skillful sailors, voyag- 
ing up and down the Mediterranean and 
of^n^wTandT ©veu beyoud the straits of Gibraltar. The 
Normans, and certain of the Spanish peo- 
ples, early sailed boldly into the northern and western 
seas. 

But it was the little state of Portugal that led the 
way in the discovery of new worlds. A prince of that 
state gave so much attention to discovery, in the first 
half of the fifteenth century, that he was called Prince 




THE CROSS-STAFF 



END OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 253 

Henry ''the Navigator." Under his wise direction, 
Portuguese seamen began working their way south, 
along the coast of Africa. In this way, the Madeira 
and Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde were 
discovered, one after another, before 1450. After 
Prince Henry's death, a Portuguese captain succeeded, 
in 1486, in reaching the southernmost point of Africa, 
to which the Portuguese King gave the name ' ' Cape of 
Good Hope." Twelve years later, in 1498, Vasco de 
Gama realized this hope by reaching the East Indies, 
and so opened up communication by sea with India. 

Six years before this event, as we all know, Colum- 
bus tried to reach the same region by sailing westward, 
and really discovered the new world of America, — 
though he died thinking that he had reached Asia and 
the East Indies. 

So, we come to a time when Europe had emerged 
from the darkness of the Middle Ages, and was pre- 
paring, first, to make a Reformation in European 
religion, and then to go forth and found ff^the Miaafe 
new Europes across the seas. The details ^^^^' 
of these events belong to the story of Modern Times, 
and not to the Middle Ages. To complete our story, 
we need only tell what was the condition of each of the 
principal states of Europe at this time, and point out 
the part that it was to play in the new period. 

Germany was the country which was to take the 
lead in bringing about the Reformation in religion. Its 
people were more serious-minded than the 
peoples south of the Alps, and felt more Germany, 
keenly the evils in the Church ; above all, 
it was there that the great reformer, Martin Luther, 
was l)orn. But Germany was split up into a great 



254 THE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 

many little states, each with its own prince, and each 
practically independent of the Emperor. So there was 
no national strength in Germany; and, when the move- 
ment to establish colonies and take possession of the 
New World began, Germany took no part in that. 

Italy, also, was too much split up among rival cities 
and warring principalities to take any part in coloniza- 
tion ; and the Eastern nations, such as 
Italy, Sweden, Russia and Polaud, were not used to the 

and Holland. ' 

sea. Sweden for a while became very 
powerful, in the seventeenth century, owing to the 
al)ility of its great King, Gustavus Adolphus ; and it 
established colonies on the river Delaware. The Dutch 
(Holland) also for a time became a great seafaring 
people, and established colonies on the banks of the 
Hudson. Both tliese countries, however, soon lost their 
strength, and their colonies for the most part passed 
into the hands of larger and stronger nations. 

It was the nations of Western Europe, — England, 
France, and Spain, — that were to take the lead in 
building up new P]uropes across the water. 

England, at the close of the Middle Ages, was just 
coming out of the long War of the Roses, which was 

mentioned in the last chapter. That war 
England. had brought Henry VII., the grandfather 

of the great Queen Elizabeth, to the throne ; 
and under him England was strong, united, and pros- 
perous. Thus, when a Venetian sea captain, John 
Cabot, asked King Henry for ships to sail westward to 
the lands newly found }>y Columbus, his request was 
granted. In that way, the beginning was made of a 
claim which, after many years, gave the English the 
possession of all tlie eastern part of North America. 



END OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 255 

France, also, was strong, united, and prosperous at 
the close of the Middle Ages. Through several cen- 
turies, the kings had been busy breaking 
down the influence of the great nobles, and France, 
gathering the power into their own hands. 
So, France was ready to take part in the exploration 
and settlement of the New AVorld. The result was that 
the French got Canada and Louisiana, and, for a time, 
it seemed as though the whole of the great Mississippi 
basin also would pass into their hands. 

It was Spain, however, that was to take the chief 
part in the work of making known the New World to 
the Old, and in establishing there the first colonies. 

From the days when the Moors came into Spain, in 
711, the Spanish Christians had been occupied, for 
nearly eight hundred years, in defending 
themselves in the mountains against the Spain. 
Mohammedans, and in winning back, bit by 
bit, the land which the Goths had lost. Little by little, 
new states had there arisen — Castile, Leon, Aragon, 
and Portugal. Next, these states began to unite — 
Leon with Castile, and then (by the marriage of Queen 
Isabella to King Ferdinand) Castile with Aragon. In 
the year 1492, the last of the Moors were overcome, 
and the whole peninsula, except Portugal alone, was 
united under one King and Queen. 

Thus Spain, too, was made strong, united, and pros- 
perous ; and so was prepared, with the confidence of 
victory upon it, to send forth Columbus, Vespucius, De 
Soto, Cortez, and Magellan, to lay the foundations of 
the first great colonial empire. 

All this was made possible by tlie Middle Ages. Tlie 
blending of the old Germans with the peoples of the 



256 ^J'^I'^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Roman Empire made the Spaniards, the French, "and, 
to a certain extent, the English people. The events 
of the Middle Ages shaped their develop- 
Ages and the mcnt, and formed the strong national mon- 
archies which alone could colonize the New 
World. And it was the institutions and ideas, which 
had been shaped and formed and re-shaped and re- 
formed in the Middle Ages, that the colonists brought 
with them from across the sea. 

So, in a way, the story of the Middle Ages is a part 
of our own history. The New World influenced the Old 
World a very great deal; but it was itself influenced, 
yet more largely, by the older one. 

Review and Study Topics 

1. Make a list of the ways in which Modern Times are different 

from the Middle Ages. 

2. How did the fall of Constantinople help to bring the Middle 

Ages to an end? 

3. State in your own words what the Eevival of Learning was. 

4. Which of the new inventions was the most important? 

Give your reasons. 



INDEX 



Diacritical Marks: a as in late; a as in fat; a as in far; a as in care; 
e as in me; 6 as in met; & as in there; g as in gem; i as in ice; i as in ti7i; n the 
French nasal; o as in note; 6 as inno(; 6 as in for; ii the French u. Italic 
letters are silent. 



Aachen (a'ken), 102. 

Acre (il'ker), siege of, 1.52-3. 

Ad-rl-an-6'ple, battle of, 28; under 

Turks, 247. 
Agincourt (a-zh&n-koor'), battle of, 

236-38. 
Al'a-ric, 30, 31-6, 63, 117. 
Al'frSd, King of England, 126-28. 
Al-16-nian'ians (-yans), 65, 67. 
America, discovered by Northmen, 

123; by Columbus, 253. 
Angles, 59-60, 12.5-26. 
An'tl-ocfe, siege of, 140-43. 
Ar'abs, 77-87; overthrown by Turks, 

1.33. 
Archers, English, 226. 
A'rI-an-ism, 54-5, 60, 69. 
A'rl-us, 54-5. 
Armagnacs (ar-man-yak') . and Bur- 

gundians, 239, 240, 243. 
Ar'yiin peoples, 14. 
As'tro-labe, 252. 
Ath-a-na'sius (-shus), 54-5. 
Athens, 32. 
At'tl-la, 42-3, 63, 104. 
Augustus, Emperor. 16. 
Avignon (a-ven-yon'), papacy at, 221- 

22. 

Benedict, St., 195; rule of, 196-201. 

Ber'nard, St., 205. 

Black Death, 229. 

Black Prince, 227-33. 

Bon'i-faoe VIII., Pope, 218, 221. 

Books, mediaeval, 201-2. 

Britain, 59; Romans in, 124; conquered 

by Angles and Saxons, 125. {See 

England.) 



Brun-hil'dii, 73. 
Bul-ga'rI-ans, 136. 

Bur-gun'dl-ans, 41, 03, 64, 67; party 
in France, 239, 240, 243. 

Cab'ot, John, 254. 

Cannon, use of, 247, 250. 

Ca-nos'sa, Henry IV. at, 213-14. 

Ca-nute', King, 128. 

Castles, rise of, 106; life of, 158-72. 

Cathedrals, 191. 

Chalons (sha-lon'), battle of, 43, 46. 

Charlemagne (shar'-16-mafi), 90-100, 
114, 116, 135, 212. 

Charles Mar-tgl', 85-86, 104. 

Charles (the Bald), 105. 

Charles V. of France, 232-35. 

Charles VI. of France, 235, 239. 

Chimneys, 179. 

Christians, in Roman Empire, 52; 
oppressed by Turks in Holy Land, 
133; massacre inhabitants of Jeru- 
salem, 144; spared by Saladin, 150. 

Church, 10-11; growth of, 50-60; 
separation of Greek and Roman, 55; 
feudalized, 112; evils in, 210; 
Great Schism in Western, 222. 

Civilization, meaning of, 11; elements 
of mediaeval, 11. 

Clara, St., 196. 

Clgr'mont, council at, 134-35. 

Clo-tll'da, 68, 71. 

Clo'vls, King, 65-70, 71, 73. 

Cluny (klii-ne'), monastery of, 209, 
210-11, 214. 

Columbus, 253. 

Com'munes, mediaeval, 187. 

Compass, 251. 



157 



258 



INDEX 



Conrad III. of Germany, 148. 

Con'-stan-tlne, Emperor, 52. 

Constantinople, 25, 29, 30, 32, 42, 47, 
134, 136; splendor of, 138-39; cap- 
tured on Fourth Crusade, 155; by 
Turks, 246-47. 

Corinth, isthmus of, 32. 

Crecy (cra-se'). battle of, 226-29. 

Cross-staff, 252. 

Crusades, 123, 132-57. 

Curfew, 192. 

Dark Ages, 11, 38-9, 48, 58. 
Dg-sl-de'ri-us, King, 94-96. 
Dominic, St., 196. 
Dii Guesclin (ga-klan'). 233-35. 

East-Goths, 27, 46-9, 67. 

E-dgs'sa, fall of, 148. 

Edward (the Confessor), 128-29. 

Edward III. of England, 225-29, 233. 

Empire, Eastern, separation from 
West, 30; threatened by Turks. 134; 
in hands of Crusaders, 155; fall of, 
246-47. 

Empire, Western, separation from 
Eastern, 30; overthrown by Ger- 
mans, 38-51; revived by Charle- 
magne, 97-8; by Otto I., 208-9; 
conflicts with Papacy, 212-18; 
practically confined to Germany, 
218. 

Engines, military, 140, 144, 153, 165, 
247. 

England, conquered by Angles and 
Saxons, 125; conversion, 59-60, 126; 
Northmen in, 126-28; Norman con- 
quest, 129-31; Hundred Years' War 
with France, 224-44; Wars of the 
Rpses, 243, 254; at close of Middle 
Ages, 254. 

Excommunication, 212. 

Fairs, 192-93. 

Falconry, 168. 

Ferdinand, King of Aragon, 255. 

Feud, 18, 73-74. 

Feudalism, rise of, 109-13; decline of, 

245. 
Fonte-naj/', battle of, 104-5. 



France, rise of, 67, 105; fall of Carol- 
ingian dynasty, 120, 208; rise of 
national government in, 220-21; 
conflict with Papacy, 221; Hundred 
Years' War with England, 224-44; 
at close of Middle Ages, 255. 

Francis, St., 196. 

Franks, 51, 62-76, 84-107; of the 
Crusades, 139, 147. 

Fr6d-f-g6n'da, 73. 

Frederick (I.) Bar-ba-ros'sa, Em- 
peror, 150-51; and the Papacy, 217. 

Frederick II., Emperor, 217-18. 

Friars, 196. 

Ga'ma^^Vasco da, 253. 

Gaul, 13, 14; Romans in, 124; Bur- 

gundians settle in, 41; Attila in, 42; 

conquered by Franks, 63. (See 

France.) 
Germans, ancient, 10, 11, 12-22; 

influence on Church, 56. 
Germany, at beginning of Middle 

Ages, 12-13; separation of, 105; end 

of Carolingian rule in, 208; at close 

of Middle Ages, 253-54. 
G^Ib'gl-lines, 188. 
Gl-b'ral'tar, origin of name, 81. 
G6d'frey (of Bouillon), 146-7. 
Goths, 22-37, 39, 43, 46-49, 63-67, 

81-82. 
Greek Empire. (5ee Empire, Eastern.) 
Greenland, discovered by Northmen, 

123. 
Gregory I., the Great, Pope, 58-60. 
Gregory VII., Pope, 211-14. 
Guelfs (gwglfs), 188. 
Guilds, 190-91. 
Gunpowder, 250. 
Ga't6n-berg, 249. 

Han'nibal, 34 

Harold, King of England, 129-31. 

Hajst'ings, battle of, 130. 

Hastings, the Northman, 117-18, 121. 

Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 253. 

Henry IV. Emperor, 211-14. 

Henry V., of England, 235-39. 

Henry VI. of England, 239-40. 

Henry VII. of England, 254. 



INDEX 



259 



Hll'dS-brand, 209, 211-14. 

Holland, 254. 

Holy Lance, 142. 

Holy Roman Empire, 90, 98, 208-9, 

218. 
Hos'pitallers, 147-48. 
Humanists, 248-49. 
Hundred Years' War, 224-44. 
Hungarians, 106, 13C. 
Huns, 25-7, 39, 41-44, 46, 58, 63. 

Iceland, settled by Northmen, 123. 

Investiture conflict, 210-15. 

Ireland, 125. 

Isabella, Queen of Castile, 255. 

Italy, West-Goths in, 33-36; Attila in, 
43; Odoacer rules, 45; East Goths in, 
47-48; recovered by Justinian, 48- 
49; Lombard kingdom in, 49-51; 
conquered by Franks, 94-97; given 
to Lothair, 105; end of Carolingian 
rule in, 208; Normans conquer 
south, 122, 137; Frederick II. rules, 
218; abandoned by Emperor, 218; 
cities of, 183-85, 188; at close of 
Middle Ages, 254. 

Jerusalem, under Mohammedans, 133- 
34; captured by Crusaders, 143-45; 
Latin Kingdom of, 146; overthrown 
by Saladin, 150; recovered by 
Frederick II., 1.55, 218. 

J6-an' of Arc, 240-43 

John, King of France, 229-32. 

Jus-tin'i-an, Emperor, 48. 

Katherine, of France, 239. 
Knighthood, training for, 166-72. 
K6-ran', 80-81. 

Leo (I., the Great), Pope, 40, 43, 58. 
Lom'bards, 49-50, 58, 60, 87; conquer- 
ed by Charlemagne, 94-96. 
Lor-rainf', origin of, 105. 
Lo-thair', 105. 
Louis the Pious, 104, 117. 
Louis VII. of France, 148. 
Louis (IX.), St., of France, 155. 
Lud'wig, 105. 



Mayors of the Palace, 84. 

M6c'ca, 80. 

MSr-o-vin'gi'an kings, 71-76; set aside 
by Pepin, 87. 

Middle Ages, end of the, 245-53. 

Military Orders, 147-48. 

Mo-ham'm6d, 78-80. 

Mohammedans, conquests of, 81-83 
defeated by Charles Martel, 85-86 
Charlemagne's wars with, 93, 135 
Crusades against, 134-57; e.xpelled 
from Spain, 255. 

Monasteries, rise of, 56-57; life of, 
195-206. 

Moors, 37, 83, 85-86, 106, 255. 

Nl-cae'ii, Council of, 54; taken by 

Crusaders, 139-40. 
N6r'-man-dy, founded, 121. 
Normans, 122-23; conquests of, 122- 

23; 129-31, 
Northmen, 106, 114-23. 
Nuns, 196. 

O'do, 120. 

O-do-a'cer, 44-45, 46, 47, 63. 

Ordeals, 74-75. 

6r'16-ans, relief of, 241-42. 

6t'to I. of Germany, 208, 212. 

Palace School, 100. 

Pa'pacy, rise of, 53; under Gregory I., 

58-60; and Empire, 96-98, 207-18; 

under Boniface VIII., 218; at 

Avignon, 221-22; Great Schism in, 

222-23. 
Paris, taken by Northmen, 119; 

besieged, 120. 
Peasants, life of, 173-81; in Palestine, 

146-47; revolt of in France, 232. 
Pgp'in the Short, 86-88. 
Peter the Hermit, 136. 
Philip (II. Augustus), of France, 150, 

152-53. 
Philip IV. of France, 221. 
Philip VI. of France, 225-29. 
Poitiers (pwa-tya'), battle of, 229-31. 
Portugal, 252-53. 
Printing, 249-50. 



260 



INDEX 



Revival of Learning, 248. 

Richard (I.) the Lion-Hearted, of 
England, 150, 152-54. 163. 

Richard II. of England, 233. 

Robert the Strong, 120. 

Ro'land, 92. 

Rolf, the Northman, 121-22, 

Roman Empire, 23; and the barbar- 
ians, 16, 23-51; fall of Western, 44- 
45; Christians and the, 52. {See 
Empire, Eastern, and Empire, 
Western.) 

Romans, 9, 13, 14, 16. 

Rome, sacked by Alaric, 35-36, by the 
Vandals, 40; rule of Pope over, 
58-59. 

R6m'alus Augtis'tulus, Emperor, 44. 

R6n-c6s-vari6s, 92. 

St. Clara, 196. 

St. Ber'nard, 205. 

St. B6n'e-dict, rule of, 195-96. 

St. D6m'in-ie, 196. 

St. Francis, 196. 

St. John, Knights of, 147. 

St. Louis, King of France, 155. 

St. Scho-las'tl-ca, 196. 

S&l'a-dfn, 149-53. 

Saxons, conquer Britain, 125; in Ger- 
many, 65; conquered by Charle- 
magne, 91-93, 115; secure the Em- 
pire, 208. 

ScMsm, the Great, 221-22. 

Scho-ias'tl-ca, St.. 96. 

Scotland, 125. 

Sicily, 122. 

SIm'e-6n Sty-li'tes, 57. 

Slavs, 13. 

Spain, Vandals in, 37, 39 ; conquered by 
West-Goths, 37, 39; by Moham- 
medans, 81-83; expulsion of Moham- 
medans, 255; at close of Middle 
Ages, 255. 



Stephen (of Blois), letter of, 140-42. 
StIl'I-c/io, 32-34. 
Sweden, 254. 
Sy-ag'rI-fls, 64-65. 

Tar'Ik, 81. 

Templars, Knights, 147-48, 150. 

Teu'to-berg Forest, battle of, 16. 

Teutonic Knights, 147-48. 

The-6d'6-ric, 46-48, 67. 

The-6-d6'sius (-shus). Emperor, 29-30. 

Ther-mo'py-lae, 32. 

Thor, 20, 25, 60, 67, 92. 

T/iu-rln'gl-ans, 65. 

Tithes, 178. 

Tyr, 20. 

Tours, battle of, 85-86. 

Turks, conquer Arabs, 133; Crusades 
against, 132-57; rise of Ottomans, 
246; capture Constantinople, 247. 

Towns, rise of, 182-85; life of, 185-94. 

Ul'fll-as, 25. 

Ur'ban II., Pope, 134-35. 

Va'lens, Emperor, 29. 

Van'dals, 39-41, 48, 58, 63. 

Va'rus, 16. 

Venice, foundation of, 43. 

Vik'ings. {See Northmen.) 

Village, life of, 173-81. 

Villain, as name of contempt, 180. 

Walter the Penniless, 136. 

Welsh, 125. 

Wgr'geld, 18, 73, 74. 

West-Goths, 27-37, 39, 43, 60, 63, 64, 

67, 81-83. 
WJd'u-kind, 92. 

William the Conqueror, 129-31, 224. 
Wo'don, 20, 25, 60, 67, 92. 



!\flAR 20 1912 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



GIO^lVllBflA 




